Fresenius Medical Care Holding v. US

Filing

OPINION issued by Rogeriee Thompson, Appellate Judge; Bobby R. Baldock, Appellate Judge and Bruce M. Selya, Appellate Judge. Published. [13-2144]

Case: 13-2144

Document: 00116726359

Page: 1

Date Filed: 08/13/2014

Entry ID: 5845432

United States Court of Appeals
For the First Circuit
No. 13-2144
FRESENIUS MEDICAL CARE HOLDINGS, INC.,
Plaintiff, Appellee,
v.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Defendant, Appellant.

APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS
[Hon. Douglas P. Woodlock, U.S. District Judge]

Before
Thompson, Baldock* and Selya,
Circuit Judges.

Anthony T. Sheehan, Attorney, Tax Division, United States
Department of Justice, with whom Kathryn Keneally, Assistant
Attorney General, Tamara W. Ashford, Principal Deputy Assistant
Attorney General, Carmen M. Ortiz, United States Attorney, Gilbert
S. Rothenberg, Attorney, Tax Division, and Bruce R. Ellisen,
Attorney, Tax Division, United States Department of Justice, were
on brief, for appellant.
James F. Bennett, with whom William H. Kettlewell, Maria R.
Durant, Megan S. Heinsz, Collora LLP, and Dowd Bennett LLP were on
brief, for appellee.

August 13, 2014

*

Of the Tenth Circuit, sitting by designation.

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SELYA,

Circuit

Page: 2

Judge.

Date Filed: 08/13/2014

This

tax-refund

Entry ID: 5845432

litigation

requires us to explore the uncertain terrain surrounding the tax
treatment of settlement payments made under the False Claims Act
(FCA), 31 U.S.C. §§ 3729-3733.

We hold, as a matter of first

impression in this circuit, that in determining the tax treatment
of an FCA civil settlement, a court may consider factors beyond the
mere presence or absence of a tax characterization agreement
between the government and the settling party.

While this holding

may be at odds with the decision in Talley Industries Inc. v.
Commissioner, 116 F.3d 382 (9th Cir. 1997), we are convinced that
generally accepted principles of tax law compel us to part company
with the Ninth Circuit.
The case before us involves the tax treatment of roughly
$127,000,000 paid to the government in partial settlement of a
kaleidoscopic array of claims.

The district court concluded that

where, as here, the parties had eschewed any tax characterization,
the critical consideration in determining deductibility was the
extent to which the disputed payment was compensatory as opposed to
punitive.

At trial, the court's jury instructions embodied this

conclusion and directed the jury's focus to the economic realities
of the situation.

The jury split the baby and found that a large

chunk of the money ($95,000,000) was deductible.
finding,

the

court

ordered

tax

refunds

interest, totaled more than $50,000,000.

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which,

Accepting this
with

accrued

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The government appeals.

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We take note of the district

court's skillful handling of this complicated litigation, and we
affirm.
I.

BACKGROUND
Fresenius Medical Care Holdings, Inc. is a major operator

of dialysis centers in the United States and around the world.
Between 1993 and 1997, whistleblowers brought a series of civil
actions against Fresenius1 under the FCA.

The government paid heed

and, in 1995, a number of government agencies opened civil and
criminal investigations into Fresenius's dealings with various
federally funded health-care programs.

Because the FCA was in

play, Fresenius faced potential liability for treble damages.

See

31 U.S.C. § 3729(a).
In 2000, Fresenius entered into a complex of criminal
plea and civil settlement agreements with the government.
agreements

called

for

Fresenius

to

pay,

in

the

These

aggregate,

$486,334,232, $101,186,898 of which was earmarked as criminal
fines.

The

remainder

—

$385,147,334

—

was

the

price

for

Fresenius's absolution from civil liability.
The civil settlement agreements released a gallimaufry of
claims against Fresenius (including claims under the FCA).

1

Of

These actions were originally brought against National
Medical Care, Inc. (NMC), which thereafter was acquired by
Fresenius. For ease in exposition, we refer to Fresenius, NMC, and
NMC's subsidiaries, jointly and severally, as Fresenius.
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paramount

pertinence

for

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present

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purposes,

these

Entry ID: 5845432

agreements

eschewed any commitment as to how the payments were to be treated
for tax purposes.
Despite the global nature of the settlement, a new
dispute soon enveloped the parties.
tax treatment of the sums paid.

This dispute centered on the

Over time, the parties pared the

scope of their dispute: they agreed that the amounts paid as
criminal fines, totaling $101,186,898, were not deductible; and
that,

out

of

the

payments

required

by

the

civil

settlement

agreements, an amount equal to single damages under the FCA
($192,550,517) was deductible.

They could not agree to the tax

treatment of the balance of the civil settlements ($192,596,817).
Acting under protest, Fresenius filed amended tax returns
that

took

no

deduction

for

this

balance.

Following

an

administrative appeal, the government conceded that a further
figure equal to the amount owed to the FCA whistleblowers as qui
tam relators ($65,800,555), see id. § 3730(d), was deductible.
Fresenius then commenced a tax-refund action in the United States
District Court for the District of Massachusetts for the purpose of
determining the deductibility of the amount still in dispute
($126,796,262).

See 26 U.S.C. § 7422.

After some preliminary skirmishing, the district court
convened a jury trial.

At the close of all the evidence, the court

reserved decision on the government's Rule 50 motion for judgment

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as a matter of law and submitted the tax characterization question
to the jury.

The jury found that $95,000,000 was deductible.

The

court then denied the reserved motion.
In

the

aftermath

of

the

jury

stipulated to the verdict's tax effects.

verdict,

the

parties

Thereafter, the court

entered judgment for Fresenius in the amount of $50,420,512.34, see
Fresenius Med. Care Holdings, Inc. v. United States, No. 08-12118,
2013 WL 1946216, at *1 (D. Mass. May 9, 2013), and denied the
government's renewed motion for judgment as a matter of law.

This

timely appeal followed.
II.

ANALYSIS
In this venue, the government advances two claims of

error.

Its first claim of error challenges the district court's

denial of its motions for judgment as a matter of law and,
therefore, engenders de novo review.
689 F.3d 66, 70 (1st Cir. 2012).

See Palmquist v. Shinseki,
Its second claim of error

challenges the district court's jury instructions and, as framed,
likewise engenders de novo review. See DeCaro v. Hasbro, Inc., 580
F.3d 55, 61 (1st Cir. 2009) (explaining that de novo review obtains
when a claim of instructional error contends that jury instructions
failed to "capture the essence of the applicable law"). We address
these claims of error sequentially.

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A.

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Judgment as a Matter of Law.

The government moved for judgment as a matter of law at
the close of all the evidence and renewed its motion following the
verdict.

See Fed. R. Civ. P. 50(b).

rejected the government's motion.

Each time, the district court
The government now challenges

these rulings.
When the denial of a Rule 50(b) motion is appealed, a
reviewing court must view the evidence in the light most flattering
to the verdict and must draw all reasonable inferences therefrom in
favor of the verdict. See Casillas-Díaz v. Palau, 463 F.3d 77, 8081 (1st Cir. 2006).

The challenge will succeed only if reasonable

minds, viewing the evidence in this light, "could not help but
reach an outcome at odds with the verdict."
Phoenix,

Inc.,

456

F.3d

198,

208

(1st

Cir.

Mandel v. Bos.
2006)

(internal

quotation mark omitted).
As a working principle, a motion for judgment as a matter
of law ordinarily falls into one of two generic categories.

The

first (and most common) type of motion challenges evidentiary
sufficiency; that is, whether the evidence of record, when taken
most favorably to the nonmoving party, is adequate to prove a case
under an uncontroversial legal regime.

See, e.g., Cook v. R.I.

Dep't of Mental Health, Retardation, & Hosps., 10 F.3d 17, 21 (1st
Cir. 1993).

The second type of motion tests the applicable law;

its focus is less on the evidence and more on whether the verdict,

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as rendered, depends on an incorrect legal regime.

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See, e.g.,

Grande v. St. Paul Fire & Marine Ins. Co., 436 F.3d 277, 280-81
(1st Cir. 2006).
This case is of the latter stripe.

The government

concedes (or, at least, does not contest) that the verdict is based
on a sufficient evidentiary foundation under the legal regime
explicated by the district court.

It argues, however, that this

legal regime is faulty and that, under a correct legal regime, the
evidence is insufficient to sustain the verdict. We turn, then, to
the applicable law.
The foundational elements of the relevant tax law are
easily summarized.

The Internal Revenue Code allows a business to

deduct all of its "ordinary and necessary expenses paid or incurred
during the taxable year."

26 U.S.C. § 162(a).

Because tax

deductions "are matters of legislative grace[,] the taxpayer bears
the burden of proving entitlement to any deduction."

MedChem

(P.R.), Inc. v. Comm'r, 295 F.3d 118, 123 (1st Cir. 2002) (citing
INDOPCO, Inc. v. Comm'r, 503 U.S. 79, 84 (1992)).
Congress has ordained that no deduction may be made "for
any fine or similar penalty paid to a government for the violation
of any law." 26 U.S.C. § 162(f). Implementing regulations provide
that

the

universe

penalt[ies]"

as

of

well

nondeductible
as

amounts

fines

"[p]aid

includes
in

"civil

settlement

of

. . . potential liability" for any nondeductible fine or penalty.

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26

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C.F.R.

§

Page: 8

1.162-21(b).

Date Filed: 08/13/2014

Withal,

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"[c]ompensatory

damages

. . . paid to a government do not constitute a fine or penalty."
Id. So viewed, a critical distinction exists between items such as
fines or penalties (which are nondeductible) and items such as
compensatory damages (which are deductible).
This

taxonomy

interfaces

provision for treble damages.

awkwardly

with

the

See 31 U.S.C. § 3729(a).

FCA's
Single

damages are plainly compensatory and, thus, plainly deductible.
See

26

C.F.R.

deductibility
statute).

§

of

1.162-21(c)
actual

(providing,

damages

recovered

in

example

under

an

1,

for

analogous

But that is not the end of the matter; some amounts in

excess of single damages generally are regarded as compensatory,
see Cook Cnty. v. United States ex rel. Chandler, 538 U.S. 119,
130-31 (2003), and therefore deductible.

This makes good economic

sense: an enforcement action following a fraud brings new costs and
delays and requires a recovery of more than single damages to make
the

government

whole.

See

id.;

see

also

United

States

v.

Bornstein, 423 U.S. 303, 315 (1976) (describing FCA multiple
damages as "necessary to compensate the Government completely for
the costs, delays, and inconveniences occasioned by fraudulent
claims").

Such additional costs may include — but are not limited

to — the expenses of prosecuting the action and the time-value of
the delayed receipt of single damages (generally represented by an

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imputation of interest). See, e.g., Chandler, 538 U.S. at 131; see
also Fresenius, 2013 WL 1946216, at *5-6.
While

these

legal

principles

are

uncontroversial,

plotting the sometimes hazy line that separates the compensatory
from the punitive can be tricky business.

See Chandler, 538 U.S.

at 130 (acknowledging that "the tipping point between payback and
punishment defies general formulation").

That difficult line-

drawing exercise is central to the case at hand.
At trial, Fresenius exhibited its recognition of the
dichotomy between compensatory and punitive payments. To this end,
it introduced evidence of the compensatory nature of the disputed
sums. The district court also recognized this dichotomy. It began
its appraisal by confirming that the civil settlement agreements
"unambiguously decline to address the punitive or compensatory
nature of the settlement payments for [tax] purposes."
2013 WL 1946216, at *7.

Fresenius,

In the absence of any agreement by the

parties, the court tasked the jury with determining "what amount
[was] necessary to put the government in the position it would have
been in had Fresenius not" engaged in the underlying misconduct.
In essence, the court — after placing the burden of proof on
Fresenius — asked the jury to measure deductibility in terms of the
economic realities of make-whole remediation.
The government takes umbrage with this approach.

It

asseverates that the absence of an agreement between the parties as

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to whether the payments will be deductible defeats Fresenius's
claim of deductibility.

In advancing this asseveration, the

government assigns talismanic significance to the presence or
absence of a tax characterization agreement between the settling
parties.
The government's position is founded almost exclusively
on the decision in Talley. Like this case, Talley involved the tax
treatment of an FCA settlement.

See Talley, 116 F.3d at 384-85.

The Ninth Circuit started from the common understanding that FCA
multiple
purposes.2

damages

can

serve

See id. at 387.

either

compensatory

or

punitive

To the extent that the settlement sum

exceeded single damages, the court reasoned, the case presented a
question "as to the characterization and the purpose of" that
portion of the settlement.

Id.

Because the settlement agreement

failed to provide clarity, the court remanded to the Tax Court and
directed that this question be answered by examining "whether the
parties intended the payment to compensate the government . . . or
to punish" the taxpayer.

Id.

In the process, the court stressed

that the taxpayer bore the burden of proving eligibility for
deductions and, therefore, would suffer the consequences of any
lack of evidence as to the parties' intent.

2

At the time
provided for double
Talley, 116 F.3d at
district court that,
no difference.

See id. at 387-88.

material to the Talley decision, the FCA
damages rather than treble damages.
See
386-87. We agree with the parties and the
for present purposes, this distinction makes
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The government argues that the Talley court's analytic
approach creates a rule requiring that any FCA civil settlement
sums in excess of single damages (except, perhaps, whistleblowers'
fees) be treated as punitive fines (and, thus, nondeductible)
unless the parties have manifested a contrary intention.

As the

government reads Talley, that manifested intent can be proven only
by showing a tax characterization agreement between the government
and the taxpayer.
reality

has

no

In its view, Talley suggests that economic

bearing.

Building

on

this

foundation,

the

government argues that the court below should have entered judgment
in its favor as a matter of law once it found that the parties had
abjured any tax characterization agreement.
We cannot accept the government's rationale. A rule that
requires a tax characterization agreement as a precondition to
deductibility

focuses

too

single-mindedly

on

the

parties'

manifested intent in determining the tax treatment of a particular
payment.
hand

of

Such an exclusive focus would give the government a whip
unprecedented

ferocity:

it

could

always

defeat

deductibility by the simple expedient of refusing to agree — no
matter how arbitrarily — to the tax characterization of a payment.
Moreover, an exclusive focus on manifested intent, such
as the government proposes, would be an anomaly in tax law.

When

mulling transactions between private parties, courts that are
required to make tax characterizations typically look to substance

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— that is, the economic reality of the particular transaction,
objectively viewed — rather than to the form chosen by the parties.
See, e.g., United States v. Eurodif S.A., 555 U.S. 305, 317-18
(2009); Boulware v. United States, 552 U.S. 421, 429-30 (2008);
Neb. Dep't of Revenue v. Loewenstein, 513 U.S. 123, 134 (1994);
Frank

Lyon

Co.

v.

United

States,

435

U.S.

561,

573

(1978);

Helvering v. F. & R. Lazarus & Co., 308 U.S. 252, 255 (1939);
Palmer v. Bender, 287 U.S. 551, 555-56 (1933). Logic suggests that
this approach ought to apply equally to the tax treatment of
settlement payments.

See, e.g., Francisco v. United States, 267

F.3d 303, 321-22 (3d Cir. 2001); Delaney v. Comm'r, 99 F.3d 20, 2324 (1st Cir. 1996). In that context, too, "court[s have] the right
— indeed, the duty — to look beyond the language subscribed to by
the parties."

Rozpad v. Comm'r, 154 F.3d 1, 4 (1st Cir. 1998)

(internal quotation marks omitted).

Substance matters.

This is not to say that the intent of the settling
parties is immaterial.

It is not.

See Francisco, 267 F.3d at 319

(explaining that the "intent of the payor" of a settlement, though
not dispositive, is often "the most persuasive evidence of the
nature of claims settled").

If the government and a defendant

settle an FCA claim and specifically agree as to how the settlement
will be treated for tax purposes, it is hard to envision any reason
why a reviewing court should not honor that agreement.

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But that is not this case.

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Here, the parties did not

agree on the tax characterization of the civil settlement payments
(indeed, during the negotiations leading to the settlement, the
government
Rather,

apparently

the

refused

parties'

to

discuss

manifested

intent

tax

consequences).

with

respect

to

deductibility was expressed as an agreement not to agree; they
intentionally left the question open.

Under generally accepted

principles of tax law, a court's inquiry should then shift to the
economic realities of the transaction.
The

government

resists

this

common-sense

approach.

Relying solely on Talley, it argues that the FCA settlement context
is special and that economic reality is irrelevant.3

It insists

that the only pertinent inquiry is one that seeks to determine
whether

a

tax

characterization

agreement

government and the settling party.

exists

between

the

We disagree.

Talley offers an indistinct beacon by which to steer.
The case is distinguishable on its facts and its message is
unclear.

If Talley stands for the proposition asserted by the

3

One reason that the FCA context is special, the government
suggests, is that the government is a party both to the settlement
agreement and to the tax dispute. But the tax treatment of a
transaction is determined by the provisions of the Internal Revenue
Code, and the fact that one party to a transaction is the
government itself does not alter this truism. See Wash. Mut. Inc.
v. United States, 636 F.3d 1207, 1221 (9th Cir. 2011).
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government,4

then

Talley

Page: 14

is

Date Filed: 08/13/2014

incorrectly

decided

and

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does

not

deserve our allegiance.
The government's proposed rule is also in serious tension
with yet another fundamental tenet of tax law.

This tenet holds

that amounts paid or received in settlement should receive the same
tax treatment, to the extent practicable, as would have applied had
the dispute been litigated and reduced to judgment.

See, e.g.,

Lyeth v. Hoey, 305 U.S. 188, 196 (1938); Freda v. Comm'r, 656 F.3d
570, 574 (7th Cir. 2011); Alexander v. IRS, 72 F.3d 938, 942 (1st
Cir. 1995).

The government's position here inters that tenet in

the graveyard of forgotten canons.
When an FCA claim is tried rather than settled, there
will perforce be no characterization agreement available to guide
the tax treatment of awarded damages.

Nevertheless, some portion

of the award beyond single damages may subsequently be found to
have a compensatory purpose.
Bornstein, 423 U.S. at 315.

See Chandler, 538 U.S. at 130-31;

Hence, that portion of the award will

4

It is debatable whether Talley actually stands for this
proposition. Although the government's reading is not an unnatural
one, it may be seeing more in Talley than the decision portends.
On remand following the Ninth Circuit's decision in Talley, the Tax
Court appeared open to considering the economic substance of the
settlement, but was unable to go down that path because the parties
had not developed an appropriate factual record. See Talley Indus.
Inc. v. Comm'r, 77 T.C.M. (CCH) 2191, 2196 (1999) (noting that
"[n]either party made a serious effort to quantify the Government's
actual losses in excess of its 'singles' damages"), aff'd, 18 F.
App'x 661 (9th Cir. 2001). In contrast, Fresenius meticulously
developed just such a record.
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be deductible.

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See 26 C.F.R. § 1.162-21(b).

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The same result

logically should obtain in the settlement context.

Thus, a rule

that requires a tax characterization agreement as a precondition to
deductibility would produce an infelicitous asymmetry.
We are not insensitive to the government's fear that
refusing to require a tax characterization agreement not only makes
the eventual deductibility of settlement payments difficult to
predict but also may create perverse incentives.5
considerations

cannot

trump

either

the

clear

But such policy
statutory

and

regulatory language conferring deductibility upon compensatory
payments or the case law's sensible emphasis on economic reality.
The government also predicts that if we reject its
proffered rule, the result will be the frustration of public
policy.

This is so, it says, because those who violate the FCA

should, when brought to book, be made to feel the sting of
punishment.
162(f),

This prediction overlooks the provenance of section

which

penalties.

expressly

disallows

deductions

for

fines

and

That statute represents Congress's codification of

earlier precedent that was concerned with exactly the same policy

5

The government conjures up a parade of horribles suggesting,
for example, that corporations may stall settlement negotiations in
order to build up imputed interest.
Despite these glum
predictions, we are confident that the world will remain firmly on
its axis. Viewed in real-world terms, we think that — if we may
borrow a phrase — the government's "[p]resent fears [a]re less than
horrible imaginings." William Shakespeare, Macbeth, act 1, sc. 3
(circa 1606).
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considerations that the government now seeks to invoke.

See

Stephens v. Comm'r, 905 F.2d 667, 672 (2d Cir. 1990) (limning
background to passage of amendments to section 162); see also Tank
Truck Rentals, Inc. v. Comm'r, 356 U.S. 30, 35 (1958) (prohibiting
deductibility,

before

passage

of

section

162(f),

where

such

treatment would severely frustrate sharply defined governmental
interest).

Because Congress has calibrated this balance, we

decline the government's invitation that we recalibrate it by
judicial fiat.
To say more about this matter would be to paint the lily.
We hold that, in determining the tax treatment of an FCA civil
settlement, a court may consider factors beyond the mere presence
or

absence

of

a

tax

characterization

government and the settling party.

agreement

between

the

Because the district court

charged the jury in accordance with this legal regime and the
government

has

insufficient

not

to

argued

support

the

that

the

jury's

evidence

verdict,

of

the

record

is

government's

motions for judgment as a matter of law were appropriately denied.
B.

Jury Instructions.

The government's remaining claim of error need not detain
us.

This claim of error implicates the district court's jury

instructions.

For the most part, this claim rests on the same

argument that we considered and rejected in Part II. A, supra.
Those arguments are no more persuasive in the context of jury

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instructions and, to the extent that they are repeated, we reject
the claim of instructional error out of hand.
The

government

does,

however,

offer

one

additional

remonstrance: it calumnizes what it calls the district court's
"residual

approach"

to

the

question

of

deductibility.

This

approach is exemplified, the government says, by the court's
instruction that payments can only be considered punitive if they
are "above what is necessary" to compensate the government.
Before us, the government faults this rationale, arguing
that there is no basis to assume either that settlement payments
must

be

applied

to

compensatory

damages

first

or

that,

in

settlement negotiations, the government is conceding punitive
dollars first.

Settlement negotiations, after all, require some

level of compromise, with parties seeking agreement on a mutually
acceptable

discount

from

the

face

value

of

the

claim.

The

government suggests that it would make more sense to apply this
settlement discount evenly across the deductible and nondeductible
portions of the underlying claim.
The government's argument has a patina of plausibility.
When multi-faceted claims are settled, courts sometimes have upheld
tax allocations that apply the settlement discount pari passu
across the deductible and nondeductible portions of the original
claim.

See, e.g., Francisco, 267 F.3d at 323; Rozpad, 154 F.3d at

4-5; Delaney, 99 F.3d at 25-26.

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Delaney provides an apt illustration of this praxis.
There, the taxpayer won a tort judgment of $287,000, out of which
$175,000 (61%) was excludable from taxable income as personal
injury damages.

See Delaney, 99 F.3d at 22.

The remainder of the

judgment constituted taxable income (prejudgment interest).

See

id. While an appeal was pending, the parties settled for $250,000.
See id. The Internal Revenue Service prorated the settlement along
the lines indicated by the judgment and determined that only 61%
was excludable from taxable income.
proration.

See id.

We upheld that

See id. at 25-26.
We need not — and do not — reach the merits of this

argument. Though it has some plausibility, it comes too late. The
government did not clearly articulate this argument in the district
court and, in all events, did not raise it in its post-charge
objections to the jury instructions.6

See Fed. R. Civ. P. 51.

We

have held, with a regularity bordering on the monotonous, that
claims of instructional error not seasonably advanced in the trial

6

At oral argument, the government asserted that its request
to have the district court instruct the jury in line with its
version of the Talley rule, see text supra, encompassed this point.
But Talley does not support the point. Moreover, we have carefully
reviewed both the government's proffered instructions and its
objections to the district court's charge; and we find nothing in
them that resembles the "priority" argument that the government
makes on appeal. The fact that acceptance of the Talley rule would
have rendered the question of priority moot does not excuse either
the government's failure to request the instruction or its failure
to object to the instruction's omission from the charge as given.
See Romano v. U-Haul Int'l, 233 F.3d 655, 662-63 (1st Cir. 2000).
-18-

Case: 13-2144

Document: 00116726359

Page: 19

Date Filed: 08/13/2014

Entry ID: 5845432

court are waived and cannot be broached for the first time on
appeal.

See, e.g., Ji v. Bose Corp., 626 F.3d 116, 125 (1st Cir.

2010); Muñiz v. Rovira, 373 F.3d 1, 6-7 (1st Cir. 2004); Davis v.
Rennie, 264 F.3d 86, 100 (1st Cir. 2001); Wells Real Estate, Inc.
v. Greater Lowell Bd. of Realtors, 850 F.2d 803, 809 (1st Cir.
1988).
III.

So it is here.7

CONCLUSION
We need go no further. For the reasons elucidated above,

the judgment of the district court is

Affirmed.

7

To be sure, we have some highly circumscribed discretion to
reach out for and review unpreserved claims of instructional error.
See Muñiz, 373 F.3d at 7. But this discretion is reserved for
exceptional cases and must be exercised sparingly.
See id.;
Toscano v. Chandris, S.A., 934 F.2d 383, 385 (1st Cir. 1991). The
case at hand falls within the general waiver rule, not within the
long-odds exception to it.
-19-