Chai v. Commissioner of Internal Reven
Filing
OPINION, vacating the Tax Court s jurisdictional ruling, remanding the case to the Tax Court to enter a revised decision upholding the additional income tax deficiency, affirming the portion of the Tax Court s order upholding the self employment tax deficiency and reversing the portion of the Tax Court s order upholding the accuracyrelated penalty, by RAK, RCW, SLC, FILED.[1992019] [15-1653, 15-2414]
Case 15-1653, Document 125, 03/20/2017, 1992019, Page1 of 71
15‐1653 (L)
Chai v. Commissioner
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
______________
August Term, 2016
(Argued: October 25, 2016 Decided: March 20, 2017 )
Docket Nos. 15‐1653 (L); 15‐2414 (XAP)
____________
JASON CHAI,
Petitioner‐Appellant‐
Cross‐Appellee,
COMMISSIONER OF INTERNAL REVENUE,
Respondent‐Appellee‐
Cross‐Appellant.
______________
Before:
KATZMANN, Chief Judge, WESLEY and CARNEY, Circuit Judges.
______________
Case 15-1653, Document 125, 03/20/2017, 1992019, Page2 of 71
These cross appeals from orders of the United States
Tax Court relate to taxpayer Jason Chai’s underreporting of
income in his 2003 tax return, principally in connection
with a $2 million payment Chai received for his role in a
now‐defunct tax‐shelter scheme. The Commissioner of
Internal Revenue (the “Commissioner”) issued Chai a
notice of deficiency for failing to pay self‐employment tax
on the payment. Chai petitioned the Tax Court for
redetermination of that deficiency. While that deficiency
proceeding was pending, and before the Tax Court had
determined the proper treatment of the $2 million payment,
partnership losses (for an unrelated partnership of which
Chai was a partner) were disallowed in a separate
partnership tax proceeding. The Commissioner thereafter
asserted by amended answer in Chai’s personal deficiency
proceeding an income‐tax deficiency attributable to the
$2 million payment, in addition to the self‐employment‐tax
deficiency, now that Chai’s partnership losses had been
disallowed. The Tax Court ultimately sustained the self‐
employment tax deficiency and related penalty, but
dismissed for lack of jurisdiction the Commissioner’s later‐
asserted income‐tax deficiency. In upholding the penalty
assessment, the Tax Court rejected as untimely Chai’s
argument, raised for the first time in post‐trial briefing, that
the Commissioner failed to carry his burden to show
compliance by the Internal Revenue Service with a written
supervisory approval requirement imposed by statute.
Chai challenges the ruling upholding his self‐employment‐
tax deficiency and the Tax Court’s refusal to consider his
post‐trial sufficiency challenge with respect to the penalty,
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and the Commissioner challenges the Tax Court’s
jurisdictional ruling with respect to the income‐tax
deficiency. AFFIRMED IN PART, VACATED IN PART,
REVERSED IN PART, and REMANDED.
JEREMY KLAUSNER (Frank Agostino,
Lawrence M. Brody, on the brief),
Agostino & Associates, P.C.,
Hackensack, NJ, for Petitioner‐
Appellant‐Cross‐Appellee.
ARTHUR T. CATTERALL, Attorney, Tax
Division, Department of Justice
(Richard Farber, on the brief), for
Catherine D. Ciraolo, Acting
Assistant Attorney General,
Washington, D.C., for Respondent‐
Appellee‐Cross‐Appellant.
______________
WESLEY, Circuit Judge:
Taxpayer Jason Chai’s appeal and the Commissioner
of Internal Revenue’s (the “Commissioner”) cross‐appeal
relate to Chai’s underreporting of income in his 2003 tax
return, principally in connection with a $2 million payment
Chai received from Delta Currency Trading, LLC (“Delta”)
for his role in a now‐defunct tax‐shelter scheme. The
Commissioner issued Chai a timely notice of deficiency
asserting that he owed self‐employment tax on the $2
million payment, plus a 20% accuracy‐related penalty. The
3
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original notice of deficiency did not assert an income‐tax
deficiency because the $2 million increase in Chai’s income
was initially offset for income‐tax purposes (but not self‐
employment‐tax purposes) by his reported share of a
partnership loss that could be adjusted only in a separate,
partnership‐level proceeding. Chai initiated a deficiency
proceeding in the United States Tax Court to challenge the
Commissioner’s self‐employment‐tax determination.
While Chai’s deficiency proceeding was pending,
losses reported by Mercato Global Opportunities Fund, LP
(“Mercato”)—a partnership of which Chai was a member—
were disallowed in a partnership tax proceeding (the
“Mercato proceeding”). Chai had reported his share of
Mercato’s losses on his 2003 personal return. With that loss
disallowed, Chai would also owe income tax on the $2
million payment if the Tax Court decided that the payment
was income. To collect that tax (and another 20% accuracy
penalty), the Commissioner filed an amended answer in
Chai’s personal deficiency proceeding to assert an income‐
tax deficiency in addition to the original self‐employment‐
tax deficiency. In separate orders, the Tax Court held (1) it
lacked jurisdiction over the added income‐tax deficiency
because I.R.C. § 6230 required the Commissioner to apply
the results of the Mercato proceeding to Chai by
computational adjustment, rather than in his deficiency
proceeding, and (2) Chai owed the self‐employment tax and
corresponding penalty. In upholding the penalty
assessment, the Tax Court rejected as untimely Chai’s
argument, raised for the first time in post‐trial briefing, that
the Commissioner failed to carry its burden to show
4
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compliance with a statutory written‐approval requirement.
The Commissioner challenges the first ruling, and Chai
challenges the second.1
For the reasons discussed below, we hereby:
(1) VACATE the Tax Court’s jurisdictional ruling and,
because Chai concedes that the $2 million payment is fully
taxable, REMAND the case to the Tax Court to enter a
revised decision upholding the income‐tax deficiency;
(2) AFFIRM the portion of the Tax Court’s order upholding
the self‐employment‐tax deficiency; and (3) REVERSE the
portion of the Tax Court’s order upholding the accuracy‐
related penalty.
The numbers involved in this litigation are as follows. On his
2003 tax return, Chai reported an overall loss of $11.47 million
and income tax of $0. Most of the loss—$11.15 million—was due
to Chai’s participation in the Mercato partnership. When the IRS
audited Chai’s 2003 return, it adjusted his income upwards by
$2.4 million, largely due to the $2 million Delta payment. This
still left a loss of approximately $9.1 million. The IRS’s first
notice of deficiency therefore asserted a $63,751 self‐employment
tax deficiency and a $12,750.20 accuracy‐related penalty. When
the Mercato proceeding concluded and the partnership loss was
disallowed, Chai’s income was no longer sheltered by the
partnership losses. Not including the Delta payment, this
brought Chai’s 2003 income to $49,869, for which the IRS issued
a computational adjustment for $10,269 in income tax and a
$2,053.80 penalty. Including the disputed Delta payment, this
would put his 2003 income just above $2 million, for which the
IRS asserted in its First Amendment to Answer (defined infra) an
income tax deficiency of $563,868.
1
5
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BACKGROUND
I.
STATUTORY FRAMEWORK
This case involves the complicated intersection of
partnership and individual taxpayer tax court proceedings.
Before turning to the facts and procedural background of
this case, both of which are encumbered with terminology
and concepts that have confounded the parties and the Tax
Court, it is helpful to start with a basic outline of the
statutory context underlying this case.
When the Internal Revenue Service (the “IRS”) audits
an individual taxpayer’s return and determines that he
owes more than he reported, it must follow statutorily
prescribed deficiency procedures to recover unpaid tax,
including unpaid self‐employment tax imposed by I.R.C.
§ 1401(a), as well as any applicable reporting penalty. See
I.R.C. §§ 6211‐6216, 6665(a)(1). Those procedures require
the IRS to assert its claim for additional tax and penalty
through a notice of deficiency, which the taxpayer may
challenge by petition filed in the Tax Court within 90 days
of the notice’s issuance. See I.R.C. §§ 6212(a), 6213(a).
The Tax Court “exercises jurisdiction only to the
extent provided by statute.” See GAF Corp. v. Comm’r, 114
T.C. 519, 521 (2000). Its jurisdiction to redetermine a
deficiency asserted by the IRS “depends upon a valid notice
of deficiency and a timely filed petition.” Id.; see Moretti v.
Comm’r, 77 F.3d 637, 642 (2d Cir. 1996) (“A notice of
deficiency is . . . considered the jurisdictional prerequisite to
a taxpayer’s suit in the Tax Court for redetermination of his
tax liability.” (internal quotation marks omitted)). Where
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the notice of deficiency is invalid, the Tax Court must
dismiss the case. See GAF Corp., 114 T.C. at 528.
The IRS is prohibited from assessing and collecting
additional tax deficiencies during the period for filing a Tax
Court petition. If the taxpayer timely files, that prohibition
remains in place until the decision of the Tax Court
becomes final. I.R.C. § 6213(a). Along the same lines, the
statute of limitations on the assessment of any additional
deficiencies is tolled during that period and for 60 days
thereafter. I.R.C. § 6503(a)(1).
Unlike individuals and corporations, partnerships are
not separately taxable entities. A partnership’s income and
expenses pass through to the individual partners, who must
pay a tax on their proportionate shares of net gain or may
claim a deduction for their shares of net loss. Partnership
tax is subject to the procedures set forth in the Tax Equity
and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 (“TEFRA”), Pub. L.
No. 97‐248, 96 Stat. 324 (codified as amended at I.R.C.
§§ 6221‐6234). Central to those procedures is the distinction
between partnership and nonpartnership items.
“Partnership item[s]” are items more properly determined
at the partnership level than at the partner level—e.g.,
income, gain, loss, deduction, and credit. I.R.C. §§ 6221,
6231(a)(3). “Nonpartnership item[s]” are all of the
partnership’s remaining income and expenses that are not
“partnership item[s].” I.R.C. § 6231(a)(4).
To initiate adjustments to partnership items, TEFRA
requires the IRS to conduct a unitary audit of the
partnership and issue a final partnership administrative
7
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adjustment (“FPAA”) to the partners, which the partners
may challenge in a single judicial proceeding (a “TEFRA
proceeding”) in, inter alia, the Tax Court. See I.R.C.
§§ 6223(a)(2), 6226. Adjustments to nonpartnership items
follow the standard procedures for adjustments to personal
income. See I.R.C. §§ 6221, 6230(a)(2)(A). The goal of the
TEFRA procedures “is to ensure that, in general,
partnership items are adjusted once at the partnership level.
All partners, whose tax liability will be affected by its
outcome, have the opportunity to participate in the audit
allowing each to be bound by its result.” Callaway v.
Comm’r, 231 F.3d 106, 111 (2d Cir. 2000).
As with the deficiency proceedings for
nonpartnership (i.e., personal) items, the IRS is prohibited
from making FPAA‐related deficiency assessments during
the period in which a partner may challenge the FPAA and,
if a challenge is commenced, until after a final Tax Court
decision is issued. I.R.C. § 6225(a). The statute of
limitations is likewise tolled during that period and for one
year after a final decision. I.R.C. § 6229(d).
Once a partnership‐level tax proceeding becomes
final (or the time to seek judicial review of the FPAA
expires), the IRS applies the results to each partner’s
personal return and calculates any deficiencies. If the
deficiency calculation would be purely computational, the
Commissioner issues to the partner a “notice of
8
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computational adjustment,”2 rather than a notice of
deficiency. I.R.C. § 6225; see I.R.C. § 6230(a)(1) (“Except [in
certain circumstances], subchapter B of this chapter [i.e.,
deficiency procedures] shall not apply to the assessment or
collection of any computational adjustment.”).; N.C.F.
Energy Partners v. Comm’r, 89 T.C. 741, 744 (1987). The
deficiency procedures, however, do apply to “affected
items”3 that require an individual, partner‐level factual
determination.4 I.R.C. § 6230(a)(2)(A). In such
instances, the IRS is required to issue, within one year of the
outcome of the TEFRA proceeding, an affected‐item notice
of deficiency (unless it can be folded into the partner’s
I.R.C. § 6230(c)(2)(A). A “computational adjustment” is “the
change in the tax liability of a partner which properly reflects the
treatment under this subchapter of a partnership item. All
adjustments required to apply the results of a proceeding with
respect to a partnership under this subchapter to an indirect
partner shall be treated as computational adjustments.” I.R.C.
§ 6231(a)(6) (internal citations omitted).
2
An “affected item” is “any item to the extent such item is
affected by a partnership item.” I.R.C. § 6231(a)(5).
3
Section 6230(a)(2) also requires deficiency proceedings for items
that have, as a result of the FPAA proceeding, become
nonpartnership items. I.R.C. § 6230(a)(2)(A)(ii). But everyone
agrees that provision is not applicable here, except to the extent
it played into the analysis in Harris v. Commissioner, 99 T.C. 121
(1992) (addressed below).
4
9
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existing deficiency proceeding).5 I.R.C. §§ 6229(d),
6230(a)(2)(A)(i); Treas. Reg. § 301.6231(a)(6)‐1(a)(3).
The TEFRA provisions (and cases interpreting them)
are clear: Partnership‐level proceedings must be kept
distinct from deficiency proceedings involving individual
partners. A problem arises, however, where, as here, a
partnership’s net loss is so large that it offsets proposed
adjustments to nonpartnership items in a partner’s personal
deficiency proceeding. In that case, the loss offset could
eliminate some of the partner’s personal tax deficiencies
(but not others, such as a self‐employment‐tax deficiency),
and the non‐TEFRA adjustments could wind up being
uncollectible because of the expiration of the statute of
limitations vis‐à‐vis nonpartnership items.
That was the case in Munro v. Commissioner, 92 T.C.
71 (1989). There, the IRS presumptively—i.e., prior to the
conclusion of ongoing partnership‐level TEFRA
proceedings—issued a notice of deficiency to each partner
that disallowed partnership losses for computation
Penalties determined in a partnership proceeding, even if they
require a partner‐level substantive determination, are excepted
from the affected‐item notice of deficiency requirement. The
penalty is treated as a purely computational matter and not
subjected to deficiency proceedings. I.R.C. § 6230(a)(2)(A)(i); see
also I.R.C. § 6221 (requiring partnership level treatment for
partnership items “[e]xcept as otherwise provided”). That is
why, in Chai’s case, the Commissioner abandoned in the First
Amendment to Answer his claim for the additional penalty.
Comm’r Br. 17‐18 (citing I.R.C. § 6230(a)(2)(A)(i)).
5
10
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purposes.6 Id. at 72‐73. The taxpayers moved to dismiss for
lack of jurisdiction, asserting that the deficiency was
attributable to partnership‐level adjustments subject to
ongoing TEFRA proceedings. Id.at 73‐74. Although the Tax
Court agreed that a deficiency existed and that it had
jurisdiction, the court rejected the IRS computation. The
court held that partnership items included on a taxpayer’s
return must be “completely ignored [for purposes of]
determin[ing] if a deficiency exists that is attributable to
nonpartnership items.”7 Id. at 74. This became known as
the “Munro computation.”
But Munro created its own problems for taxpayers
and the IRS. A taxpayer/partner, for example, who is
subject to concurrent TEFRA and individual deficiency
proceedings could be assessed and required to pay a
deficiency that would have to be returned by the IRS as an
overpayment if partnership losses were ultimately allowed.
The taxpayer would effectively be without a prepayment
The IRS asserted a $259,500 adjustment to the Munros’ personal
combined income‐tax liability to account for unclaimed
nonpartnership items and added $54,312 more in income tax as a
result of the disallowed partnership losses, for a total deficiency
of $313,812.
6
In contrast to the IRS’s computation (which disallowed all
partnership losses), the Tax Court computed the deficiency
attributable to the $259,500 nonpartnership income adjustment to
be the difference between the tax on the Munros’ reported
nonpartnership income ($454,895) and the tax on their adjusted
nonpartnership income ($714,485).
7
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forum to litigate the partnership item adjustments. The IRS
similarly would be unable to adjust various nonpartnership
deductions where a taxpayer derives income primarily
from a partnership, because the income would have to be
ignored under Munro. Thus, in 1997, Congress created a
procedure—codified at I.R.C. § 6234—to deal with Munro‐
like situations. See Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997, Pub. L. No.
105‐34, § 1231(a), 111 Stat. 788, 1020‐23, amended by Job
Creation and Worker Assistance Act of 2002, Pub. L. No.
107‐147, § 416(d)(1)(D), 116 Stat. 21, 55.
Section 6234 is a helpful method for coordinating
deficiency and TEFRA proceedings to avoid the taxpayer
losing out on prepayment rights and the IRS losing its
ability to assess deficiencies attributable to partnership
items. It provides a declaratory judgment procedure for
adjustments to an oversheltered tax return—that is, a return
that shows no taxable income and a net loss from a TEFRA
partnership proceeding. I.R.C. § 6234(b). In such an
instance, the IRS may issue a “notice of adjustment” for
nonpartnership items if “the adjustments resulting from
such determination do not give rise to a deficiency (as
defined in section 6211) but would give rise to a deficiency
if there were no net loss from partnership items.”8 I.R.C.
Take, for example, a taxpayer/partner who files an
oversheltered return, reporting $500,000 of income and
$1 million of losses (all of which are partnership items). If the IRS
determines that the taxpayer/partner underreported his income
by $300,000, then the taxpayer/partner’s adjusted income,
namely, $800,000, would not give rise to a deficiency, because his
8
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§ 6234(a)(3). The taxpayer may challenge the notice of
adjustment within 90 days in the Tax Court, which has
jurisdiction to determine the correctness of the adjustment.
I.R.C. § 6234(c). If the Tax Court’s decision is upheld (or not
contested) and the taxpayer’s partnership items are
ultimately adjusted in a subsequent TEFRA proceeding, the
IRS may collect any additional deficiency attributable to
nonpartnership items. If the TEFRA proceedings conclude
before the Tax Court makes a declaration, the notice of
adjustment is treated as a notice of deficiency. I.R.C.
§ 6234(g)(3). Finally, if the taxpayer does not contest the
notice within the period to do so, the taxpayer may seek a
refund upon conclusion of the TEFRA proceeding for any
deficiencies attributable to partnership items that were
ultimately upheld. I.R.C. § 6234(d).
With that baseline in mind, we turn to the facts of this
case.
II.
THE TAX‐SHELTER SCHEME AND CHAI’S ROLE AS
ACCOMMODATING PARTY9
Chai is a Harvard‐trained architect who got involved
in a substantial tax‐shelter scheme at the urging of Andrew
Beer, after Beer married Chai’s cousin. Central to the self‐
partnership losses would still exceed his income, but would give
rise to a deficiency if the partnership losses were disallowed. In
such instance, § 6234 would be appropriate.
Unless otherwise noted, the undisputed facts in this section are
taken from the Tax Court opinion appealed from. See App’x 232‐
64.
9
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employment tax inquiry is Chai’s relationship to Beer and
role in the various tax shelters.
Beer is an investment manager who “created and
marketed several tax shelters directed to wealthy
individuals” in 2000 and 2001. App’x 234. The goal was to
reduce the substantial tax liabilities of prospective clients by
generating losses to offset taxable income for a particular
year. Among the entities Beer formed to market and advise
the tax shelters were Bricolage Capital, LLC (“Bricolage”),
Counterpoint Capital, LLC (“Counterpoint”), and Delta
Currency Trading, LLC (“Delta”). At all relevant times,
Beer owned all or a majority of the interests in Delta,
Bricolage, and Counterpoint (collectively, the “Bricolage
entities”). Chai never owned an interest in Delta or
Bricolage. The Bricolage entities shared clients, offices,
employees and resources.
For their services, the Bricolage entities (and
particularly Beer as majority owner) collected sizable
advisory and client‐facilitation fees. The shelters shared
three characteristics: (1) each involved a flow‐through
entity (“FTE”); (2) to garner the tax benefits, the FTEs
entered into “straddle” transactions by which gains would
be triggered before the participant entered the shelter and
losses would be triggered thereafter, leaving the participant
with an interest in only the losses; and (3) each required an
accommodation (accommodating party)—a transitory
partner or shareholder—to serve as initial owner of the
straddled gains. This is where Chai came in.
14
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In 2000, Beer offered Chai the opportunity to act as an
accommodating party in exchange for compensation from
the Bricolage entities. Chai agreed to a $100,000 annual
salary plus a signing bonus and potential discretionary
bonuses. Beer explained to Chai his integral role in the
schemes as a conduit and assured Chai that the tax
liabilities he incurred in the transactions would be
eliminated by later‐acquired offsetting losses.
Pursuant to this arrangement, during 2000 and 2001,
Chai served as the accommodating party for at least 131 tax
shelters and reported over $3.2 billion of shelter‐derived
income. He received and reported equal offsetting losses
during that time. In his capacity as accommodating party,
Chai executed numerous transactions and traveled to the
offices of Delta and its affiliates “a lot” and “regularly.”
App’x 238. Due to travel conflicts with his architecture
business, however, Chai was often unable to be physically
present to sign documents in his capacity as
accommodating party. To resolve the problem, Chai
formed JJC Trading, LLC (“JJC”) in 2001 at Delta’s
suggestion. Chai was sole owner of JJC and Bricolage was
named a nonmember‐manager with discretionary and
signatory authority.
Chai’s friendship with Beer and the resulting
business arrangement proved fruitful for Chai. In 2000, for
instance, Chai received $1.2 million as a signing bonus from
Counterpoint, and in 2001, he received $1 million from
Delta. Both entities reported the payments as non‐
employee compensation (on IRS Form 1099‐MISC,
Miscellaneous Income), and Chai reported them as income
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on his tax returns. Chai also received the agreed‐upon
$100,000 annual salary from Bricolage and Counterpoint in
each of 2001 and 2002.
On his 2001 return, Chai made a series of income‐
offsetting declarations related to his arrangement with Beer.
Chai reported on Schedule C10—the form for “Profit or Loss
From Business (Sole Proprietorship)”—that he “‘materially
participate[d]’ in the operation of [JJC’s] business during
2001,” thereby entitling him to favorable treatment under
passive‐loss rules. Supp. App’x 146. Chai described certain
capital losses as “disposition[s] of business property,”
which, under I.R.C. § 1231, allowed him to treat JJC’s losses
as ordinary losses. Supp. App’x 160‐65. Chai also made a
“mark‐to‐market” election for JJC under I.R.C. § 475(f)—an
election limited to persons “engaged in a trade or business
as a trader in securities.” Supp. App’x 156, 166; see also
I.R.C. § 475(f)(1)(A)).
By the end of 2001, all of Chai’s and JJC’s interests in
the tax shelters had been liquidated. In April 2002, after
Chai received a $1 million payment from Delta, Delta’s
financial officer, Helen Del Bove, emailed Chai that she
The instructions to Schedule C describe various circumstances
constituting “material participation,” including “participat[ion]
in the activity on a regular, continuous, and substantial basis
during [the tax year],” provided the participation exceeded 100
hours. 2001 Instructions for Schedule C, Profit or Loss From
Business, at C‐2; see Treas. Reg. § 1.469‐5T(a)(7), (b)(2)(iii).
10
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would be “finalizing some numbers within the next week
or so” regarding additional fees he would receive from
Delta in the future. Supp. App’x 211.
In February 2003, Chai and Del Bove discussed the
proper tax treatment of a prospective $2 million payment
from Delta to Chai. Del Bove told Chai that she was going
to wire him the $436,000 remaining in JJC, dissolve that
entity, and pay him another $2 million. Chai asked her how
the payments should be treated and whether he would be
issued an IRS Form 1099 for the whole amount. Del Bove
told him multiple times that the $2 million payment was
income and that Delta would report it on his Form 1099 for
2003. Beer subsequently authorized on behalf of Delta a
payment of $2 million to Chai as a discretionary bonus.
Delta, consistent with Del Bove’s guidance, treated the
payment as non‐employee compensation on Chai’s Form
1099 for 2003.
III.
CHAI’S 2003 RETURN AND RELATED AUDITS
Chai did not report the $2 million payment from
Delta as taxable income on his 2003 return. Instead, in
filing his return, he took the position that it constituted the
return of capital from his investments. Chai, however, was
not a partner of, and did not invest any capital in, Delta.
And neither Chai nor JJC reported any portion of Delta’s
income or loss in 2003. No corresponding tax form was
prepared by Delta for Chai. Chai’s return showed an
overall loss of $11,466,070 (with $0 tax), the majority of
which ($11,149,621) came from his share of partnership
losses claimed by Mercato—a partnership of which Chai
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was a member and that had no direct connection to the $2
million Delta payment.
The IRS conducted separate, but concurrent, audits
of Chai’s and Mercato’s 2003 returns. The audit of Chai’s
return resulted in a net increase income adjustment of
$2,397,139, primarily due to the unreported $2 million
payment from Delta. In its May 5, 2009 notice of deficiency
to Chai, the IRS characterized the $2 million Delta payment
as self‐employment income and therefore asserted a
corresponding deficiency in Chai’s self‐employment tax. At
that time, the IRS did not assert a deficiency in Chai’s
“regular” income tax related to the $2 million payment
because it was prohibited from adjusting Chai’s $11.1
million share of the Mercato loss prior to the conclusion of
the Mercato proceedings.
Meanwhile, the audit of Mercato led the IRS to issue,
on June 17, 2009, an FPAA that completely disallowed
Mercato’s $110 million claimed loss.
In separate proceedings over the following years,
Chai challenged the notice of deficiency and Mercato
challenged the FPAA in the Mercato proceedings.
IV.
THE TAX COURT PROCEEDINGS
Soon after filing an answer in Chai’s deficiency
proceeding in the Tax Court, the Commissioner concluded
that, under Munro,11 he should have included in the May
Recall that, in Munro, the Tax Court held that where
“partnership items . . . included on [a partner’s] return” may be
11
18
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2009 notice a deficiency in Chai’s income tax that would
result from the approximately $2.4 million upward
adjustment to Chai’s income if his share of the Mercato loss
were removed. That is, if Chai’s reported $11.1 million
share in Mercato’s losses were ignored, his overall loss
would decrease from approximately $11.5 million to
approximately $400,000; the $2.4 million adjustment would
therefore result in $2 million of taxable income. On October
30, 2009, the Commissioner filed an Amendment to Answer
in Chai’s deficiency proceeding asserting an additional
deficiency in income tax ($563,868) and a corresponding
additional 20% penalty ($112,773.80).12
On June 3, 2013, the Mercato proceeding concluded.
In an order dated September 13, 2013, the Tax Court
disallowed all of Mercato’s losses for 2003. Under I.R.C. §
6229(d), the IRS had one year from that date to assess any
computational deficiency in Chai’s 2003 income tax and
penalty.
In December 2013, at the beginning of trial in Chai’s
personal deficiency proceeding, Chai moved to dismiss for
lack of jurisdiction the claims made by the Commissioner in
subject to subsequent adjustment in a partnership proceeding,
those items “are completely ignored [for purposes of]
determin[ing] if a deficiency exists that is attributable to
nonpartnership items.” 92 T.C. at 74.
This resulted in a total deficiency in income tax and self‐
employment tax of $627,619 and a total penalty of $125,524, for a
total owed by Chai of $753,143.
12
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his 2009 Amendment to Answer.13 Chai did not dispute the
disallowance of the Mercato loss. Instead, he argued that,
rather than asserting the additional claims for income tax
due after disallowance of the Mercato losses in Chai’s
present deficiency proceeding, the Commissioner had to
issue a notice of computational adjustment—the method by
which the IRS notifies partners of purely computational
deficiency assessments and related penalties resulting from
the application of the outcome of a partnership‐level
proceeding to their returns. See I.R.C. §§ 6225, 6230(a)(1).
The Commissioner countered that he had “properly
recomputed the [asserted] deficiency and penalty” in the
2009 Amendment to Answer by removing Chai’s share of
the partnership loss from the computation, as required by
Munro. Supp. App’x 10‐11. Alternatively, the
Commissioner argued, even if Munro did not apply because
the Munro computation here would effect a complete,
rather than partial, disallowance of the partnership losses,
the Tax Court could “now take jurisdiction and rule on” the
recomputed amounts pursuant to its I.R.C. § 6212
deficiency jurisdiction (as augmented by I.R.C. § 6214(a)).
Chai argued that the Commissioner had misconstrued Munro,
and had, in essence, anticipated that the proposed adjustments to
the Mercato partnership return would be vindicated in the
Mercato proceeding in violation of Munro. See Supp. App’x 4
(noting that the Tax Court in Munro “reject[ed the
Commissioner’s] argument that proposed adjustments to
partnership items can be taken into account in computing a
[partner’s] deficiency” (quoting Munro, 92 T.C. at 74)).
13
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Supp. App’x 17. In support, the Commissioner relied on
Harris v. Commissioner, 99 T.C. 121, 123 (1992), for the
proposition that “once partnership items are resolved, the
Court may take those partnership items into account for
computational purposes in a [partner’s previously initiated]
deficiency proceeding.” Supp. App’x 17 (citing Harris, 99
T.C. at 123).
The Commissioner alternatively argued (as he does
here) that the $2 million payment (or the deficiency
attributable thereto) was an “affected item” under I.R.C.
§§ 6230(a)(2)(A)(i) and 6231(a)(5). He asserted that the
claim for the increased deficiency was contingent upon the
Tax Court’s resolution of the dispute over the $2 million
payment from Delta, which the IRS termed a substantive
“partner‐level [individual taxpayer] determination” with
respect to an “affected item.” Supp. App’x 13. As the
Commissioner has now acknowledged, it was an odd fit.
Nevertheless, recognizing that the affected‐item argument
might render the Amendment to Answer ineffective to
confer jurisdiction over the additional deficiency, the
Commissioner also sought leave to amend the answer again
to formally reassert the income‐tax deficiency claim now
that the Mercato proceeding was final.14 The Tax Court
The Commissioner also acknowledged that his argument, if
credited, would render the penalty immediately assessable
under I.R.C. § 6230(a)(2)(A)(i), thereby depriving the Tax Court
of jurisdiction over that claim in the deficiency proceeding. The
Commissioner abandoned the claim for the penalty.
14
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granted leave to file what it restyled as the “First
Amendment to Answer” on April 24, 2014.
V.
THE TAX COURT’S RULINGS
A. The Jurisdictional Ruling
On February 13, 2015,15 the Tax Court granted Chai’s
motion to dismiss, holding that it lacked jurisdiction over
the Commissioner’s claim for additional income tax. The
court agreed with Chai that the 2009 Amendment to
Answer attempted “to increase a taxpayer’s deficiency
based on the Commissioner’s proposed, but unadjudicated,
adjustments to . . . partnership items” in violation of Munro.
Supp. App’x 40. The court did not address the
Commissioner’s now‐primary argument that, even if Munro
did not allow the amendment, under Harris the court
obtained jurisdiction over the newly added claims once the
Mercato decision became final simply by virtue of its I.R.C.
§ 6212 deficiency jurisdiction (as augmented by I.R.C.
§ 6214(a)).
The court also rejected the Commissioner’s argument
that it obtained jurisdiction by virtue of the First
Amendment to Answer based on the affected‐item theory.
The “critical inquiry” under an affected‐item theory, said
the court, was “whether the increased deficiency . . .
requires a partner‐level determination before it can be
assessed.” Supp. App’x 42. The court held that it did not:
This was long after the expiration of the one‐year period within
which the IRS could assess deficiencies by computational
adjustment. See I.R.C. § 6229(d).
15
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There is no factual determination that must
occur in the petitioner’s deficiency proceeding
before respondent can apply the results of the
[Mercato] proceeding. The disallowed losses
from the [Mercato] proceeding can be applied
to petitioner’s 2003 income taxes regardless of
the outcome of this deficiency proceeding
(whether the $2 million at issue in this case is
taxable non‐employee compensation or a
return of capital).
Supp. App’x 43. In the court’s view, “section 6230(a)(1)
requires that the results of the [Mercato] proceeding be
applied to [Chai] through a Notice of Computational
Adjustment.” Supp. App’x 43. Thus, the court found that
the First Amendment to Answer did not give the court
jurisdiction over the increased deficiency.
The Commissioner moved for reconsideration, noting
that he had already applied the results of the Mercato
proceeding to Chai’s 2003 tax return in an August 2014
notice of computational adjustment—that is, he
automatically applied the disallowed loss to Chai’s then‐
agreed upon income—$49,869—and determined income tax
thereon. However, the Commissioner explained, the IRS
could not apply the additional deficiency claimed as a
result of the $2 million Delta payment without treating it as
taxable income in its computations. And it could not treat
the payment as taxable income because the court had not
yet ruled in the deficiency proceeding that Chai had
received the payment as gross income, rather than as a
return of capital or a gift. In other words, the
23
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Commissioner argued, the partner‐level ruling regarding
the proper treatment of the $2 million payment was
necessary before it could assess the additional deficiency.
The Tax Court denied the motion for reconsideration,
without comment, on April 16, 2015.
B. The Self‐Employment Tax Ruling
On May 6, 2015, the Tax Court entered its final
decision upholding the deficiency in Chai’s self‐
employment tax and an accuracy‐related penalty. The
court noted that “[t]he character of a payment for tax
purposes is determined by the intent of the parties,
particularly the intent of the payor, as disclosed by the
surrounding facts and circumstances.” App’x 245‐46
(collecting cases). Gross income, the court explained,
“generally includes all income from whatever source
derived, including compensation for services in the form of
fees, commissions, or fringe benefits.” App’x 245 (citing
I.R.C. § 61(a)(1)). A return of capital or receipt of a gift, on
the other hand, is not taxable income.
Here, the court found that the trial testimony and
record evidence (including the contemporaneous email
exchange with Del Bove and other correspondence between
Chai and Delta personnel) supported the conclusion that
the $2 million payment was compensation subject to self‐
employment tax. The court rejected Chai’s attempts to
minimize his role in the tax shelters, finding instead that his
role “was a critical component of the transactions and the
tax shelters could not have functioned as planned without
[his] participation.” App’x 246. Additionally, the court
24
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found that the evidence contradicted Chai’s
characterization of the payment as a return of capital.
Instead, the evidence showed that Chai was not a partner or
investor in Delta and did not have a capital investment in
any tax‐shelter entity after 2001. Neither was the payment
a gift from Beer, the court held, as “[t]he record is devoid of
any evidence suggesting that the payment resulted from
detached and disinterested generosity.” App’x 255.
Finally, the court held that, as necessary to be subject to
self‐employment tax, “the record demonstrate[d] that
[Chai] accommodated tax shelters with sufficient
continuity, regularity, and a profit motive such that he was
engaged in a trade or business as a tax shelter
accommodating party.” App’x 253.
C. The Penalty Ruling
In post‐trial briefing, Chai argued for the first time
that the Commissioner had failed to satisfy his burden of
production under I.R.C. § 7491(c) “by not introducing
evidence of his compliance with section 6751(b)(1),” which
requires written supervisory approval of certain penalty
determinations. App’x 256. The court declined to consider
Chai’s argument, finding it untimely and that the
Commissioner would be prejudiced by its consideration.
The court then upheld the 20% accuracy‐related
penalty asserted in the notice of deficiency. The court held
that the Commissioner had satisfied his burden to prove the
existence and amount of deficiency, and that Chai failed to
satisfy the reasonable‐cause exception because he could not
establish justified reliance on his accountant.
25
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Chai filed a timely notice of appeal on May 18, 2015,
and the Commissioner filed a notice of cross‐appeal on July
24, 2015.
VI.
PROCEEDINGS IN THIS COURT
In January 2016, Chai moved to dismiss as untimely
the Commissioner’s cross‐appeal, arguing that the Tax
Court’s February 2015 jurisdictional order dismissing the
IRS’s claims for the additional deficiency and penalty was
an immediately appealable “dispositive order” within the
meaning of Tax Court Rule 190(b)(1). In March 2016, a
panel of this Court denied Chai’s motion, citing Estate of
Yaeger v. Commissioner, 801 F.2d 96, 98 (2d Cir. 1986).
DISCUSSION
We review de novo the Tax Court’s legal conclusions
and for clear error its factual findings. Callaway, 231 F.3d at
115 (citing I.R.C. § 7482(a)(1)). “In particular, ‘[w]e owe no
deference to the Tax Court’s statutory interpretations, its
relationship to us being that of a district court to a court of
appeals, not that of an administrative agency to a court of
appeals.’” Id. (alteration in original) (quoting Exacto Spring
Corp. v. Comm’r, 196 F.3d 833, 838 (7th Cir. 1999)).
I.
THE JURISDICTIONAL RULING
A. We Have Jurisdiction Over the Commissioner’s
Cross‐Appeal
As an initial matter, Chai again asserts that the
Commissioner’s cross‐appeal is untimely. While we need
not revisit our prior decision denying his motion to dismiss,
we explain briefly why it stands.
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With exceptions not relevant here, the United States
Courts of Appeals “have exclusive jurisdiction to review
the decisions of the Tax Court . . . in the same manner and
to the same extent as decisions of the district courts in civil
actions tried without a jury.” I.R.C. § 7482(a)(1). In the
context of an appeal from a district court decision,
“[f]ederal appellate jurisdiction generally depends on the
existence of a decision by the District Court that ‘ends the
litigation on the merits and leaves nothing for the court to
do but execute the judgment.’” Coopers & Lybrand v.
Livesay, 437 U.S. 463, 467 (1978) (quoting Catlin v. United
States, 324 U.S. 229, 233 (1945)); see also 28 U.S.C. § 1291
(generally limiting appellate jurisdiction to “appeals from
. . . final decisions of the district courts”). The Third Circuit
has stated that “[j]urisdiction under section 7482(a)(1) . . .
extends only to a ‘final decision’ of the tax court.” N.Y.
Football Giants, Inc. v. Comm’r, 349 F.3d 102, 105 (3d Cir.
2003) (quoting Ryan v. Comm’r, 680 F.2d 324, 326 (3d Cir.
1982)). This Court has held “that Tax Court decisions are
appealable only if they dispose of an entire case.” Estate of
Yaeger, 801 F.2d at 98. A notice of appeal from the Tax
Court must be filed within 90 days of the entry of such
“decision,” or within 120 days of the entry of “decision” if
another party has filed a timely notice of appeal. I.R.C. §
7483.
Here, the Tax Court entered its final decision on May
6, 2015.16 Chai filed a notice of appeal 12 days later. The
The March 2015 Memorandum and Findings of Fact and
Opinion and the April 2015 order were not labeled as
16
27
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Commissioner filed a notice of appeal on July 24, 2016, 49
days after entry of the Tax Court’s decision and well before
the 120‐day limit set by § 7483. The Commissioner’s notice
was therefore timely.
Chai contends that the Commissioner’s notice was
untimely because the Tax Court’s February 13, 2015
dispositive order concerning its jurisdiction over the
income‐tax deficiency was the operative final decision for
the cross‐appeal. An order is an appealable final decision
only when it was “clearly intended to end a litigation.”
SongByrd, Inc. v. Estate of Grossman, 206 F.3d 172, 178 (2d
Cir. 2000). Because the Tax Court’s February 13, 2015 order
was not intended to dispose of the Commissioner’s initial
self‐employment‐tax‐deficiency claim and end the
proceeding in the Tax Court, that order was not
immediately appealable. See Coopers & Lybrand, 437 U.S. at
467.
Chai’s central argument that Tax Court Rule
190(b)(1), which provides that a “dispositive order . . . shall
be treated as a decision of the Court for purposes of
appeal,” rendered the February 13, 2015 order immediately
appealable is meritless. As discussed above, a final decision
must clearly be intended to end the litigation; Rule 190(b)(1)
“decisions” and no party has argued that the filing of those
documents began the time for appeal. The March entry stated
that a “decision” reflecting the opinion would be entered at a
later date. App’x 264.
28
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does not address finality and must be read in a manner
consistent with the statutory finality requirement.
We also reject Chai’s argument that the February 13,
2015 order was final and appealable under I.R.C.
§ 7481(a)(1), which provides that a “decision of the Tax
Court shall become final . . . [u]pon the expiration of the
time allowed for filing a notice of appeal.” That subsection
addresses finality only when a “[t]imely notice of appeal
[has] not [been] filed,” see id., without dictating when the
time to file a notice begins. Chai’s argument thus begs the
question in the present case.
B. The Tax Court’s Jurisdictional Ruling was
Incorrect
The odd posture of this case has confounded even the
Commissioner; he has offered several theories to support
his request for reversal, only to abandon them to focus on
others. The problem is that the Internal Revenue Code’s
jurisdictional provisions have gaps, and this case lands
neatly within one. The irony is that no one—not even
Chai—disputes that, as a result of the decision in the
Mercato proceeding disallowing the partnership losses, Chai
has $2 million of net income on which he has not paid
income tax. The question is, can the IRS collect it?
More precisely, we must decide whether the Tax
Court had jurisdiction over the additional income‐tax
deficiency when the Commissioner filed the First
Amendment to Answer at the conclusion of the Mercato
proceeding, at some earlier time, or not at all. In plain
English: Did the Tax Court have the authority to consider
29
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the re‐determination of Chai’s partnership losses in
deciding his income‐tax liability resulting from his receipt
of the $2 million Delta payment—a payment that had
nothing to do with his Mercato partnership interest?
The Commissioner has abandoned his prior reliance
on Munro and instead advances two somewhat
contradictory arguments as to how the Tax Court erred in
its jurisdictional analysis. His primary argument is that, for
much the same reasons set forth in Harris, the Tax Court
obtained jurisdiction over the increased deficiency because
the Commissioner’s First Amendment to Answer was filed
after the conclusion of the Mercato proceeding and prior to
the Tax Court’s decision in Chai’s deficiency proceeding.
Alternatively, the Commissioner argues that the claim for
the increased deficiency is attributable to an “affected
item,” requiring a partner‐level determination. Chai
responds that Harris is inapposite and that this is not an
affected‐item case. He seems to suggest, as did the Tax
Court, that the only way for the Commissioner to have
assessed the additional deficiency was by issuing a notice of
computational adjustment” under I.R.C. § 6230(c)(2)(A).
This case does not fit neatly into the statutory
methods marrying TEFRA and deficiency proceedings. See
I.R.C. § 6234. But procedural oddities do not mean the tax
is uncollectible. For the following reasons, we are
persuaded that the Tax Court erred in dismissing the
Commissioner’s claim for the additional income‐tax
deficiency.
30
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We start with two uncontroversial premises. First,
the IRS could not have assessed the income‐tax deficiency
attributable to the $2 million Delta payment until the
Mercato proceeding concluded. It is textbook tax law,
affirmed in Munro, that any increased deficiency (and
penalty) attributable to a proposed, but not‐yet‐adjudicated,
adjustment to a partnership item at issue in a TEFRA
proceeding must await the outcome of the partnership‐level
proceeding. Munro, 92 T.C. at 74; see also GAF Corp., 114
T.C. at 521‐28 (dismissing for lack of jurisdiction a notice of
deficiency issued prior to the completion of related
partnership‐level proceedings). Second, as a general matter,
the scope of a deficiency proceeding may be expanded to
cover any additional deficiencies for the tax year beyond
those asserted in a statutorily‐compliant notice of deficiency
that is the subject of the proceeding. See I.R.C. § 6214(a)
(“[T]he Tax Court shall have jurisdiction to redetermine the
correct amount of the deficiency even if the amount so
redetermined is greater than the amount of the deficiency,
notice of which has been mailed to the taxpayer, and to
determine whether any additional amount, or any addition
to the tax should be assessed, if claim therefor is asserted by
the Secretary [through the Commissioner] at or before the
hearing or a rehearing.”).
The Tax Court’s decision was, at bottom, based on
the blanket assertion that, because the increased deficiency
was not an “affected item” under § 6230(a)(2)(A)(i), “section
6230(a)(1) require[d] that the results of the [Mercato]
proceeding be applied to [Chai] through a Notice of
Computational Adjustment.” Supp. App’x 43 (emphasis
31
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added); see I.R.C. § 6230(a)(1) (“Except [in certain
circumstances], subchapter B of this chapter [i.e., deficiency
procedures] shall not apply to the assessment or collection
of any computational adjustment.”). We agree that neither
the increased deficiency attributable to the $2 million
payment by virtue of the disallowed Mercato losses nor the
$2 million payment itself is an “affected item.” As the
Commissioner has effectively conceded in arguing its
primary position, the $2 million Delta payment is not an
“affected item,” since “the disallowance of the Mercato loss
has no bearing on whether $2 million is includible in
[Chai’s] income.” Comm’r Br. 50 n.16. In other words, the
proper treatment of the $2 million payment was unaffected
by the Mercato proceeding; the disallowance affected only
the tax consequences of that treatment. And an increased
deficiency in itself is not an affected item for purposes of
§ 6230(a)(2)(A)(i), since that section refers to deficiencies as
attributable to (not themselves constituting) affected items.
We disagree, however, with the Tax Court’s framing
of the inquiry as “whether the increased deficiency is an
affected item that requires a partner‐level determination
before it can be assessed” and its conclusion that, where
§ 6230(a)(2) does not apply, the results of the partnership‐
level proceeding necessarily must be applied to the taxpayer
through a notice of computational adjustment. Supp.
App’x 42. We conclude, to the contrary, that a
computational adjustment is not the only method that may
be employed when § 6230(a)(2) does not apply. When a
computational adjustment is not feasible, § 6230(a)(1)’s bar
32
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on the use of deficiency procedures does not apply. This
case illustrates the point.
The IRS did exactly as the Tax Court prescribed with
respect to the income Chai did report—in the August 2014
computational adjustment, the Commissioner calculated
$10,269 of tax on the $49,869 of other income that Chai
stated on his 2003 return. The Tax Court and Chai seem to
suggest, however, that the IRS should have also included in
its computational adjustment the income‐tax deficiency
attributable to the unreported $2 million Delta payment.
But Chai did not report the $2 million payment as income
on his 2003 return. Thus, in order to assess the deficiency
the Commissioner still needed a determination in Chai’s
individual deficiency proceeding as to the nature of the $2
million payment—i.e., as the Tax Court put it, “whether the
$2 million at issue in this case [was] taxable non‐employee
compensation or a [non‐taxable] return of capital.” Supp.
App’x 43. The Tax Court and Chai would have the IRS
collect the tax purportedly due on a payment, the treatment
of which was the subject of ongoing deficiency proceedings.
This is an odd position for Chai to take. He is
essentially arguing that the Commissioner should have
denied him a prepayment forum to adjudicate the
treatment of the $2 million payment simply by virtue of the
disallowance of the partnership losses, belying a
fundamental axiom of the Federal income tax structure: A
taxpayer is typically “entitled to an appeal and to a
determination of his liability for the tax prior to its
payment.” Flora v. United States, 362 U.S. 145, 159 (1960)
(quoting H.R. Rep. No. 68‐179, at 7 (1924)). We have no
33
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doubt that had the Commissioner done as Chai suggests—
assess by computational adjustment a deficiency
attributable to a still‐disputed $2 million payment—Chai
would have cried foul, taking the position exactly opposite
to the one he adopts now. A notice of computational
adjustment was not the answer.
So what was? It cannot be that the additional
deficiency is insulated from assessment simply because of
the timing of the conclusion of the partnership‐level
proceeding. By that we mean, had the Mercato proceeding
concluded after the Tax Court determined in Chai’s
deficiency proceeding that the $2 million Delta payment
constituted income, the IRS could have assessed the
additional income‐tax deficiency in a notice of
computational adjustment. But, under the Tax Court’s
approach, the additional tax is unassessable simply because
the Mercato proceeding concluded before the Tax Court
determined the proper treatment of the unreported
$2 million payment—i.e., before the IRS had the legal
predicate to assess Chai’s additional income‐tax deficiency.
We read neither § 6230 nor any other statutory provision to
require the anomalous result of depriving the Tax Court of
deficiency jurisdiction in all cases where § 6230(a)(2) does
not apply.
Harris supports our conclusion. In Harris, the Tax
Court rejected the Commissioner’s argument that it lacked
jurisdiction to consider the effect of a separate TEFRA
partnership proceeding in an ongoing deficiency
proceeding. The court acknowledged that, under I.R.C.
§ 6230(a)(2)(A)(ii), a TEFRA “settlement is applied to a
34
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partner by means of a computational adjustment and not
under the ordinary deficiency . . . procedures,” but it did
not read that provision to deprive the court “of jurisdiction
to take account of the settled items pursuant to section
6214(b).” Harris, 99 T.C. at 126. The court reasoned:
[A]fter a settlement has been reached, the
substantive partnership level issues have been
resolved, and all that remains is the mechanical
procedure of applying such settlement to the
partner. Once substantive partnership level
determinations have been made, the
congressional objective in enacting the TEFRA
partnership provisions has been accomplished.
Consequently, the provisions mandating
separation of partner and partnership level
proceedings can be relaxed.
Id. (citing Munro, 92 T.C. at 73‐74).
The Commissioner reads Harris as standing for
the proposition that the TEFRA‐mandated
adjustments subsequent to the filing of the notice of
deficiency “become subsumed within the partner’s
then‐existing deficiency posture, and the court
continues to exercise its standard deficiency
jurisdiction (as augmented by § 6214(a), if the
subsequent adjustments result in a claim for an
increased deficiency).” Comm’r Br. 48. That is,
“once the Mercato decision became final, the resulting
$11.1 million adjustment to [Chai’s] income became
35
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subsumed within his then‐existing deficiency
posture.” Id.
Chai responds that the Commissioner’s theory
“attempts to avoid TEFRA and use ordinary deficiency
procedures to apply the results of Mercato to [Chai].” Chai
Reply Br. 10. He argues that Harris is inapposite, largely
because of details the Commissioner elided. Harris, Chai
asserts, relied on the fact that “[w]hen the Commissioner
and a partner enter into a settlement with respect to
partnership items, however, such items become non‐
partnership items. Sec. 6231(b)(1)(C).” Chai Reply Br. 12‐13
(alteration in original) (quoting Harris, 99 T.C. at 126
(emphasis added)). Here, Chai argues, there was no
settlement and the disallowed Mercato losses therefore
were not converted into nonpartnership items. See Chai
Reply Br. 13‐14.
Chai misreads Harris and § 6230(a)(2)(A)(ii). True,
settled partnership items become nonpartnership items
pursuant to § 6231(b)(1) and there was no settlement here.
Also true, § 6230 specifically provides that deficiency
procedures apply to certain “items which have become
nonpartnership items.” I.R.C. § 6230(a)(2)(A)(ii). But the
jurisdictional dispute in Harris arose precisely from the fact
that, under § 6230, deficiencies attributable to settled
partnership items—unlike deficiencies attributable to other
“items which have become nonpartnership items”—are
excepted from the deficiency procedures. I.R.C.
§ 6230(a)(2)(A)(ii) (stating that deficiency procedures apply
to “items which have become nonpartnership items (other
than by reason of section 6231(b)(1)(C))”) (emphasis added));
36
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see I.R.C. § 6231(b)(1)(C) (providing that partnership items
become nonpartnership items upon settlement). Thus, it
mattered not that the settled items became nonpartnership
items under § 6231(b)(1)(C). The point is, the settled items
were not subject to the deficiency procedures under
§ 6230(a)(2)(A)(ii), but were nevertheless found to be the
proper subject of a deficiency proceeding by the Harris
court. Thus, as the Commissioner explains, “for
jurisdictional purposes, the erstwhile partnership items in
Harris are indistinguishable from the Mercato partnership
items.” Comm’r Reply Br. 10‐11.
We agree. Section 6230(a)(2)(A)(ii) was meant “to
enable the Commissioner to collect amounts due as a result
of settlements without the necessity of issuing a statutory
notice of deficiency,” not to deprive the Tax Court of
jurisdiction to decide cases like this. See Harris, 99 T.C. at
126. That does not mean purely computational adjustments
will not continue to be assessed via notice of computational
adjustment, outside of normal deficiency procedures.
Indeed, the IRS used that procedure here. The results of the
Mercato proceeding—applied to Chai by computational
adjustment—increased Chai’s taxable income to $49,869,17
and § 6230 did not require the Tax Court to ignore the effect
of that increase on the deficiency computation in the
ongoing deficiency proceeding. Rather, the Tax Court had
This is the amount of Chai’s agreed upon income after taking
account of the disallowed partnership losses, but without
factoring in the $2 million Delta payment because its treatment
was still uncertain.
17
37
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jurisdiction to redetermine the deficiency by virtue of I.R.C.
§ 6214(a) upon the conclusion of the Mercato proceeding.
For those reasons, we hold that the Tax Court erred in
concluding that it lacked jurisdiction over the additional
income‐tax deficiency attributable to the $2 million Delta
payment.
This result is not inconsistent with I.R.C. § 6234 or
Munro. At first blush, this would appear the ideal case for
the IRS to issue a § 6234 notice of adjustment, which
provides a declaratory judgment procedure for asserting
deficiencies relating to oversheltered returns prior to the
conclusion of partnership‐level proceedings. However, the
provision (read literally) does not apply to situations where
the adjustments to nonpartnership items would result in a
deficiency even if the partnership losses were given effect.
See I.R.C. § 6234(a)(3) (applying where “the adjustments
resulting from such determination do not give rise to a
deficiency (as defined in section 6211) but would give rise
to a deficiency if there were no net loss from partnership
items”). The typical example is where the IRS asserts a
deficiency in income that would result in an adjusted net
income so much greater than the taxpayer’s partnership
losses that the adjustment would result in a deficiency even
if the partnership losses are allowed.
But this case is a bit different. If Chai’s partnership
losses were given effect, the adjustment to Chai’s
nonpartnership item (the $2 million payment) would still
result in a self‐employment tax deficiency (since self‐
employment income is not offset by partnership losses), but
not an income‐tax deficiency (since his partnership losses
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would still far exceed his adjusted net income). Because a
deficiency—albeit not an income‐tax deficiency—would
exist, we agree with the Commissioner that § 6234 was not
available. See Comm’r Br. 42 (asserting that § 6234 does not
apply “because the adjustment gave rise to an asserted
deficiency in self‐employment tax notwithstanding [Chai’s]
reported share of the Mercato loss”).
This makes sense in light of § 6234. Where there is no
deficiency after crediting partnership losses, the IRS cannot
issue a timely notice of deficiency (which would suspend
the limitations period for deficiencies attributable to
nonpartnership item adjustments) prior to the conclusion of
the partnership‐level proceeding; that is where § 6234
comes into play. But the existence of the self‐employment‐
tax deficiency here gave the IRS a basis for a valid notice of
deficiency, obviating the need for a § 6234 notice.
Further, in instances like this, where § 6234 does not
apply, Munro typically continues to apply, except, the
Commissioner argues, “where . . . the non‐partnership
income reported on an oversheltered return is itself zero or
negative,” and “the Munro computation [thereby] has the
same effect as a complete disallowance of the partner’s
reported share of the partnership loss, contrary to the intent
of the TEFRA provisions.” Comm’r Br. 42‐43; accord IRM
4.31.6.2.5.1 (Aug. 1, 2006). While we are skeptical about the
Commissioner’s argument (for reasons set forth in the
39
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margin),18 there is no need to decide whether Munro
applied here. Munro provides a method for computing
(and suspending the limitation period for) partner‐level
deficiencies attributable to nonpartnership items prior to
the conclusion of the partnership‐level proceedings.
Because the Mercato proceeding ended before Chai’s
personal deficiency proceeding, Munro is inconsequential.
Once the Mercato proceeding concluded, the Tax Court had
jurisdiction by virtue of its standard I.R.C. § 6212 deficiency
jurisdiction (as augmented by I.R.C. § 6214(a)).
II.
THE SELF‐EMPLOYMENT TAX RULING
A. Standard of Review
This Court reviews the Tax Court’s factual findings
as to whether Chai’s role in Beer’s tax shelters constituted a
“trade or business” within the meaning of I.R.C. § 1402(a)
under the clearly erroneous standard. UFCW Local One
Person Fund v. Enivel Props., LLC, 791 F.3d 369, 372 (2d Cir.
2015) (“UFCW Local One”). “Where there are two
permissible views of the evidence, the factfinder’s choice
Munro held that partnership items must be “completely
ignored [for purposes of] determin[ing] if a deficiency exists that
is attributable to nonpartnership items.” 92 T.C. at 74. The
decision contemplates that, even ignoring partnership items, the
deficiency attributable to nonpartnership items may ultimately
be determined to have been overstated if certain partnership
items are upheld. Munro did not say that it applies only when
the computation would have the effect of a partial, as opposed to
total, disallowance of the partner’s reported share of partnership
losses.
18
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between them cannot be clearly erroneous.” Id. (quoting
Banker v. Nighswander, Martin & Mitchell, 37 F.3d 866, 870
(2d Cir. 1994)). “However, the district court’s application of
those facts to draw conclusions of law . . . is subject to de
novo review.” Id. (omission in original) (quoting Travellers
Int’l, A.G. v. Trans World Airlines, Inc., 41 F.3d 1570, 1575 (2d
Cir. 1994)).
B. The Two‐Prong Groetzinger Standard
Under I.R.C. § 1401, self‐employment taxes (which
amount to the equivalent combined Social Security and
Medicare taxes on wages imposed by the Federal Insurance
Contributions Act) are imposed on “the net earnings from
self‐employment derived by an individual . . . during any
taxable year.” I.R.C. § 1402(b). “[N]et earnings from self‐
employment” is defined generally as “the gross income
derived by an individual from any trade or business carried
on by such individual.” I.R.C. § 1402(a) (emphasis added).
While § 1402 does not define “trade or business,” the
Supreme Court in Commissioner v. Groetzinger, 480 U.S 23,
32‐36 (1987), considered the meaning of the phrase as it
appears in I.R.C. § 162(a). Groetzinger noted that the terms
are “broad and comprehensive,” id. at 31, and that the
determination of whether a taxpayer is carrying on a trade
or business “requires an examination of the facts in each
case,” id. at 36 (quoting Higgins v. Comm’r, 312 U.S. 212, 217
(1941)). The Court confined its construction of the term to
the tax statute at issue in that case and “d[id] not purport to
construe the phrase where it appears in other places.” Id. at
27 n.8. However, the phrase “trade or business” in § 1401
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(at issue here) is to be given the same meaning as the same
phrase in § 162. I.R.C. § 1402(c). Thus, as the parties agree,
“Groetzinger’s construction of ‘trade or business’ is the most
helpful authoritative pronouncement available, and worthy
of reliance here.” UFCW Local One, 791 F.3d at 373.
Accordingly, for Chai’s role in the tax shelters to be a “trade
or business” under § 1401, he must have engaged in the
activity: “(1) for the primary purpose of income or profit;
and (2) with continuity and regularity.” Id. (citing
Groetzinger, 480 U.S. at 35). “A sporadic activity, a hobby,
or an amusement diversion does not qualify.” Groetzinger,
480 U.S. at 35.
Primary Purpose
The Tax Court dealt with this prong swiftly, and
rightly so, finding that Chai “was paid for his services
through large lump‐sum payments that were reported by
the payors as nonemployee compensation on Forms 1099
and . . . reported the payments as self‐employment
income.” App’x 253. As the Commissioner notes, the sums
Chai received from his tax‐shelter dealings “dwarfed the
amounts he reported as income from his partnership
interest in an architectural firm.” Comm’r Br. 63. It is quite
clear that Chai’s primary purpose was to earn
compensation in exchange for his services as an
accommodating party.
Chai asserts that his sole motive was that of an
investor—that he agreed to serve as an accommodating
party only in the hope of reaping investment gains. The
Tax Court rightly rejected that portrayal of the facts. Beer
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testified that the large sums paid to Chai were largely
derived from the fees that Delta received from its clients,
not from any increase in the value of Chai’s holdings. The
whole point of the shelter scheme was to neutralize any
purported returns on investment by generating offsetting
losses.
Chai emphasizes, however, that Beer’s testimony also
explained there was an opportunity to profit on the
underlying investments, and that at least some of the
$2 million payment was “directly attributable to the
profitability of the underlying derivative transactions
entered into by the tax shelter entities.” Chai Reply Br. 24‐
25. That may be true, and Chai may have been paid less if
the scheme did not do as well, but there is no evidence that
he stood to go without compensation at all. That Chai had
an interest in the investment performance of the tax shelters
does not mean he was solely an investor in them.
Moreover, the unsurprising fact that his payment was, in
part, derived from the shelters’ investment gains does not
negate the fact that it was largely drawn from client fees.
Chai was not simply an investor in the tax shelters—he
performed a service by acting as an accommodating party
and was compensated as such. The Tax Court did not
clearly err in discrediting Chai’s contrary testimony and
concluding that he agreed to serve as accommodation party
in order to earn compensation.
Much of Chai’s argument focuses on factors set forth
in Treas. Reg. § 1.183‐2(b)—the “hobby loss” provision—to
show that he lacked profit motive. The “hobby loss”
provision is focused on limiting or disallowing deductions
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for any activity not denominated a “trade or business”
under § 162 or an activity not engaged in for the production
of income under § 212. Treas. Reg. § 1.183‐2(a). The factors
on which Chai relies are meant to guide the analysis of
whether the activities for which a taxpayer has claimed an
I.R.C. § 183 deduction were “carried on primarily as a sport,
hobby, or for recreation,” or instead primarily for profit (in
which case expenses are deductible). Treas. Reg. § 1.183‐
2(a). Chai does not (and could not credibly) argue that his
role as accommodating party was purely for pleasure. Nor
does he assert that his conduct was a hobby; rather, he says
it was to seek a return on investment. The § 183 factors
were not designed to distinguish between investment
return and profit motives. Indeed, Chai has cited no case
law applying them to a case like this. And even to the
extent § 183 is useful in this context, the Tax Court’s factual
conclusion that Chai had a profit motive was not clearly
erroneous.
The Treas. Reg. § 1.183‐2 factors are:
(1) The manner in which the taxpayer carries on the
activity; . . .
(2) The expertise of the taxpayer or his advisors; . . .
(3) The time and effort expended by the taxpayer in
carrying on the activity; . . .
(4) Expectation that assets used in the activity may
appreciate in value; . . .
(5) The success of the taxpayer in carrying on other
similar or dissimilar activities; . . .
(6) The taxpayer’s history of income or losses with
respect to the activity; . . .
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(7) The amount of occasional profits, if any, which are
earned; . . .
(8) The financial status of the taxpayer; and . . .
(9) Elements of personal pleasure or recreation
involved in the activity.
Treas. Reg. § 1.183‐2(b). Chai admits, and the
Commissioner does not dispute, that factors (4), (7), and (9)
are clearly inapplicable in this case. The others largely
weigh against Chai.
Manner in which Chai carried on the activity. Chai
asserts that he did not conduct his accommodating party
activities in a businesslike manner, as “every decision made
with respect to the tax shelter transactions was made by
Bricolage.” Chai Br. 46. He further claims that, once JJC
was formed, “[he] did not even have to sign any
documents,” as “Bricolage did everything, including acting
as the managing member of JJC.” Id. Again, the Tax Court
reasonably found that Chai engaged in businesslike
activities in his capacity as accommodating party, and he
cannot discount his role by citing his delegation of
authority to an agent.
Chai nevertheless likens his case to Sloan v.
Commissioner, 55 T.C.M. (CCH) 1238 (1988). There, Sloan, a
full‐time computer analyst who was also an attorney,
planned to establish his own law practice after he retired
from the U.S. Government, and began performing legal
services for clients on weekends while still in the
Government’s employ. The Tax Court, analyzing whether
Sloan was engaged in a “trade or business” under
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Groetzinger, held, inter alia, that Sloan did not engage in the
law practice with the primary purpose of earning a profit,
but instead to gain experience that he could use when
practicing in earnest post‐retirement. Id. at 1241.
Importantly, Sloan rarely billed clients, was not concerned
with earning a profit, and relied on his computer‐analyst
job as his primary source of income. Id.
Chai, by contrast, was focused on making a profit
(albeit, he says, through investment income), and his
income from the tax shelters dwarfed the amounts received
from his architecture practice. His role was far more
businesslike than Sloan’s, and was definitely no hobby.
Moreover, in attempting to offset income, Chai
described certain capital losses as “disposition[s] of
business property.” Supp. App’x 156, 160‐65. As the
Commissioner notes, the use of the term “business
property” suggests reliance on I.R.C. § 1231, which
provides that net losses from sales of “property used in the
trade or business” are treated as ordinary losses. I.R.C. §
1231(a)(2), (3). In another offsetting measure, Chai made a
“mark‐to‐market” election for JJC under I.R.C. § 475(f),
Supp. App’x 156, when such elections are limited to
persons “engaged in a trade or business as a trader in
securities,” I.R.C. § 475(f)(1)(A). Thus, Chai now attempts
to distance himself from his previous position—seeking in
this litigation, as the Tax Court found, to use his delegation
of authority to Bricolage “as a shield” from liability, App’x
252—while in the past having relied on his asserted
businesslike involvement in Bricolage to obtain,
affirmatively, favorable tax treatment. Chai cannot benefit
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from claims of business and trade losses while denying
income from the same endeavor.
Chai’s and his advisor’s expertise. Chai argues that
he had no expertise in and barely understood tax‐shelter
transactions, and that he “relied solely on Mr. Beer’s
representations that the transactions were legal and might
be profitable.” Chai Br. 47‐48. He seeks to contrast his case
with Bagley v. United States, 963 F. Supp. 2d 982 (C.D. Cal.
2013).
In Bagley, the court found that Bagley—who was
assessed income tax on the proceeds from various False
Claims Act (“FCA”) claims he prosecuted—and his private
counsel were essentially operating the business of a private
attorney general, given their vital expertise in prosecuting
FCA cases. Id. at 996‐97. Thus, the court found that Bagley
engaged in for‐profit activity. Id. at 998. Chai asserts that,
in contrast to himself, Bagley “had first‐hand knowledge of
the fraudulent schemes, and the identity of relevant
witnesses and the location of documentary evidence.” Chai
Br. 48 (quoting Bagley, 963 F. Supp. 2d. at 995).
Chai misses the point. Although Chai was not the
mastermind of the tax‐shelter scheme, the expertise relevant
to our analysis is that of an accommodating party. While
the role of accommodating party may not require extensive
expertise, Chai (like Bagley) was amply qualified and
proficient in the practice. Indeed, he carried out his role
successfully for years. He need not have understood every
piece of the bigger picture; he needed only to have
understood the part he played, which he did.
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Chai additionally asserts that he “received no advice
from anyone regarding being a tax shelter accommodating
party.” Chai Br. 47. Even if that is true, it only bolsters the
conclusion that he had the requisite minimal expertise to
support his participation in the venture, since the scheme
functioned with him as an essential cog and no one
suggests that he was deficient in his role. Just as Bagley’s
“involvement . . . was part and parcel of the business
Bagley was conducting,” Bagley, 963 F. Supp. 2d at 996,
Chai’s role, which he ably fulfilled, was essential to the
functioning of Beer’s tax shelter business.
Time and effort expended by Chai. This factor
weighs in Chai’s favor, but does not overcome the rest. It is
true that Chai’s activities, although regular and continuous,
were not time‐ or effort‐intensive. But that is a function of
the amount of time and effort required to be in the “trade or
business” of being an accommodating party, and not a
reflection of the nature of the activity. In other words,
although it may not take much to be an accommodating
party, Chai expended enough effort to be one.
Chai’s success in similar activities. This factor
deserves little weight, but clearly weighs in Chai’s favor: he
was not involved in similar activities before or after the
activity at issue here.
History of income or loss. Chai’s history of income
from the tax shelters was regular and substantial, including
lump‐sum payments of $1.2 million in 2000, $1 million in
2001, and $2 million in 2003. The Bagley court found
sufficient history of income where Bagley received only a
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single FCA payout. Id. at 997. Chai’s history of multiple,
yearly, and substantial payouts is even more indicative of
being in the business of being an accommodating party.19
Amount of occasional profits. As the Commissioner
points out, Chai omitted any analysis of this factor in his
main brief. In his Reply, he again skirts the issue. But the
regulations are clear that “substantial profit,” even if “only
occasional,” is “generally . . . indicative that an activity is
engaged in for profit.” Treas. Reg. § 1.183‐2(b)(7). Chai’s
profits were just that—substantial, but occasional.
Chai’s financial status. Chai misses the point, here,
too. He argues that “[i]n cases where the taxpayer has
other, full‐time employment, the requisite profit motive is
generally missing.” Chai Br. 50. He cites, inter alia, Sloan
and Levinson. In both cases, however, the activity at issue
was a secondary source of income. Here, by contrast, the
Chai cites a single case in which the Tax Court found that a
taxpayer who operated a retail store, but patented a few
inventions for which he settled two patent‐infringement suits.
The Tax Court held that these activities were not continuous, but
that it was too sporadic to be considered a trade or business. See
Chai Br. 49‐50 (citing Levinson v. Comm’r, 77 T.C.M. (CCH) 2347
(1999)). There was nothing sporadic about Chai’s involvement in
or income from the tax shelter; he received regular payments for
the work done during those years. He also misreads the relevant
inquiry as relating to his history of income in prior to his
dealings with Beer.
19
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payments Chai received in his capacity as accommodating
party dwarfed his architecture income. See Comm’r Br. 63
(comparing incomes).
In light of the foregoing, we conclude that the Tax
Court did not err in finding that Chai had the requisite
profit motive to be engaged in the “trade or business” of
being a tax shelter accommodating party, even assuming
the “hobby loss” provision applies in this case.
C. Continuity and Regularity
Applying the second Groetzinger prong, the Tax
Court found that “[t]he record demonstrates that [Chai’s]
activities were continuous and regular.” App’x 252. Chai
testified that he went to Bricolage’s offices “a lot” to execute
voluminous documents in his capacity as accommodating
party. App’x 252. The Tax Court found that the
continuous and regular nature of Chai’s activities was not
affected by his “forming JJC, making Bricolage JJC’s
nonmember manager, and giving Bricolage power of
attorney,” particularly because “Bricolage’s actions with
respect to JJC are imputed to [Chai] as his agent.” App’x
252.
That finding was bolstered by Chai’s representations
on Schedule C of his 2001 return for JJC, in which he stated
that he “‘materially participate[d]’ in the operation of this
business during 2001,” thereby entitling him to favorable
treatment under passive loss rules. Supp. App’x 146. In
defining “material participation,” the instructions to
Schedule C describe various circumstances constituting
“material participation,” including “participat[ion] in the
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activity on a regular, continuous, and substantial basis
during [the tax] year,” provided the participation exceeded
100 hours. 2001 Instructions for Schedule C, Profit or Loss
From Business, at C‐2; see Treas. Reg. §§ 1.469‐5T(a)(7),
(b)(2)(iii).
Attempting to downplay his role, Chai asserts that
what the Tax Court considered “regular” activity “was
nothing more than signing ‘multiple binders’ of documents
to ‘set up [the] corporations’ that Mr. Beer used to facilitate
his tax advantaged transactions.” Chai Reply Br. 18
(quoting Supp. App’x 209) (alteration in original). In
support, he emphasizes his own self‐serving testimony and
characterizes his role as including “going to Beer’s offices
for a few hours at a time,” “having no regular schedule and
going to the office only when requested by Bricolage,” and
“not having a physical office, assistant, or receiving mail.”
Chai Reply Br. 18. According to Chai, he “did not even
draft the documents he signed; he was nothing more than a
straw man. . . . He was nothing more than a pawn in a
much bigger game.” Chai Reply Br. 19, 22. Chai also
disclaims any knowledge of the implications of his 2001 JJC
return, stating that he “was not involved in the preparation
of the return, and did not understand the complexity or the
positions taken on the return.” Chai Reply Br. 20.
At bottom, however, the record on which the Tax
Court relied shows that the testimony of Chai and others,
combined with Chai’s representations on prior year returns,
supports the Tax Court’s conclusion that Chai undertook
his activities with “continuity and regularity.” See
Groetzinger, 480 U.S. at 35. While it is true that Chai
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maintained his architecture practice and was not as
intimately involved with the nuances of the shelters as
others like Beer, that does not render Chai’s activities
insufficiently regular and continuous for purposes of §
1401. That Chai has a different view of the evidence does
not mean the Tax Court clearly erred. See UFCW Local One,
791 F.3d at 372. The Tax Court therefore properly held the
$2 million Delta payment to constitute taxable self‐
employment income. 20
III.
THE PENALTY RULING
Chai argues that the Commissioner failed to meet his
burden on the claim to impose an accuracy‐related penalty.
We need not consider Chai’s argument, raised for the first time
on appeal, that the $2 million Delta payment is not subject to
self‐employment tax because he was an employee. See Baker v.
Dorfman, 239 F.3d 415, 420 (2d Cir. 2000) (“In general, ‘a federal
appellate court does not consider an issue not passed upon
below.’” (quoting Singleton v. Wulff, 428 U.S. 106, 120 (1976))).
20
In any event, Chai’s argument is meritless. Chai was an
employee of Counterpoint and Bricolage Capital, but not Delta.
He collapses all three into “Bricolage” and disregards their legal
separateness. As the Commissioner explains, however, “[t]here
is no authority for the proposition that a taxpayer’s employment
relationship with one entity precludes him from performing
services for a related entity as an independent contractor.”
Comm’r Br. 66. Chai’s employment relationship with
Counterpoint and Bricolage Capital did not make him an
employee, as opposed to an independent contractor, of Delta.
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Specifically, he argues, as he did in his post‐trial briefing,
that compliance with I.R.C. § 6751(b)(1)’s written‐approval
requirement “is an element of the Commissioner’s claim for
penalties,” and it is therefore “part of the Commissioner’s
burden [of production under § 7491(c)] to demonstrate
compliance with” that requirement. Chai Br. 53. Because
Chai raised the issue for the first time post‐trial, the Tax
Court declined to consider it.
The Commissioner originally did not dispute that the
written‐approval requirement is an element of a penalty
claim so long as § 6751(b)(2)(B) (the electronic‐means
exception) does not apply. He argued that the Tax Court’s
decision not to consider the argument was not an abuse of
discretion, and that, in any event, the penalty here did not
require written approval because it was of the type assessed
by electronic means. In a Federal Rule of Appellate
Procedure 28(j) letter, however, the Commissioner now
urges us to adopt the reasoning of the majority of a divided
Tax Court in Graev v. Commissioner, 147 T.C. 16, No. 30638‐
08, 2016 WL 6996650 (2016),21 which held that it is
premature to argue the IRS failed to satisfy the written‐
approval requirements of § 6751(b)(1) until the Tax Court’s
decision on the penalty became final and the IRS assessed
the penalty. Read that way, the Commissioner argues, the
issue of compliance with the written‐approval requirement
Nine judges of the Tax Court signed the majority opinion; five
judges signed a dissenting opinion; and three judges concurred
in the judgment only. The concurring opinion did not address
the issue of statutory construction.
21
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is not ripe for review in a deficiency proceeding, and the
issue of whether the Tax Court permissibly declined to
consider Chai’s argument in such a proceeding is therefore
moot. This is a notable shift from the Commissioner’s pre‐
Graev position that Chai’s post‐trial argument was too late.
Now, the Commissioner argues that Chai’s argument was
not too late, but rather premature. Chai has not addressed
Graev, but we must.
Deciding whether the Tax Court abused its discretion
in failing to consider Chai’s post‐trial challenge requires us
to determine first at what point the IRS’s obligation to
comply with the written‐approval requirement kicks in. In
other words, if compliance is required but may be obtained
at any time prior to assessment of the penalty then, as the
Commissioner now argues, the Tax Court was not required
address the unripe issue. But if compliance is required
before penalty proceedings begin, the Tax Court arguably
abused its discretion in failing to consider Chai’s argument.
Thus, this case requires us to decide which side in
Graev got it right. On one side, the Graev majority held that
the written approval may be obtained at any time before
the penalty is assessed, and any challenge thereto must be
lodged in a post‐assessment proceeding. 2016 WL 6996650
at *10 & n.13. On the other side, the five dissenting
members in Graev would hold that written approval must
be obtained prior to the initiation of Tax Court proceedings
regarding penalties. Id. at *29 (Gustafson, J., dissenting).
Before turning to Graev, we note that Chai’s was not
an electronic‐means case, and therefore § 6751(b)(1)’s
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written‐approval requirement did apply. The
Commissioner argues that the penalty here was excepted
from § 6751(b)(1)’s written‐approval requirement because it
falls within the categories of penalties “automatically
calculated through electronic means.” Comm’r Br. 77
(quoting I.R.C. § 6751(b)(2)(B)). He does not argue that
Chai’s penalty was in fact calculated through electronic
means. Instead, he cites the Internal Revenue Manual,
which instructs IRS personnel that “the assessment of a
penalty qualifies as one calculated through electronic
means if the penalty is assessed free of any independent
determination by an IRS employee as to whether the
penalty should be imposed against a taxpayer.” Comm’r Br.
78 (quoting IRM 20.1.1.2.3(5) (Aug. 5, 2014)).
The Commissioner’s argument that the penalty
imposed on Chai was “a matter of a mechanical
computation,” Comm’r Br. 77, is at odds with the nature of
the specific penalty determination in this case. Here, the
accuracy‐related penalty, arising under I.R.C. § 6662(a), can
be based on an underpayment of tax attributable to one or a
combination of causes set forth under § 6662(b). The
Commissioner, in the notice of deficiency, attributed Chai’s
underpayment to a substantial understatement of income
tax, under § 6662(b)(2), and/or negligence or disregard of
rules and regulations, under § 6662(b)(1). We are aware of
no record evidence that this determination (particularly if it
were a decision based on § 6662(b)(1)) was, or could have
been, made electronically through the IMF Automated
Underreporter Program. See IRM 4.19.3 (Aug. 26, 2016)
(providing instructions for the Automated Underreporter, a
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computerized system that uses information return
matching to identify potentially underreported tax
returns).
To the contrary, the Notice of Deficiency the
Commissioner issued Chai in May 2009 indicates that the
determinations were made by Deborah Bennett, Technical
Services Territory Manager for the IRS, or a revenue agent
working under her authority. See App’x 30. Form 886‐A,
which was included with the Notice of Deficiency, details
why the IRS determined to assess the penalty, including
that the IRS employee determined that Chai lacked
reasonable cause for the underpayment. See App’x 40‐41.
The Commissioner’s citation to the instruction manual is
unconvincing, especially in light of the Chief Counsel’s
guidance. Because Chai’s penalty was not imposed “free of
any independent determination by a Service employee as to
whether the penalty should be imposed,” see I.R.S. Gen. Couns.
Mem. 200211040, at 3 (Jan. 30, 2002) (emphasis added), it
was not “calculated automatically through electronic
means.” I.R.S. Gen. Couns. Mem. 2014004, at 2 (May 20,
2014). The IRS was therefore required to obtain written
approval of the penalty pre‐assessment.
We turn, then, to the issue of when that obligation
attached—that is, whether compliance with the written‐
approval requirement of I.R.C. § 6751(b)(1) is an element of
the Commissioner’s penalty claim and therefore part of his
burden of production. See I.R.C. § 7491(c)
(“Notwithstanding any other provision of this title, the
Secretary shall have the burden of production in any court
proceeding with respect to the liability of any individual for
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any penalty, addition to tax, or additional amount imposed
by this title.”).
“As in any case of statutory construction,” we start
our analysis, as did the Graev majority, “with ‘the language
of the statute.’” Hughes Aircraft Co. v. Jacobson, 525 U.S. 432,
438 (1999) (quoting Estate of Cowart v. Nicklos Drilling Co.,
505 U.S. 469, 475 (1992)). “[W]here the statutory language
provides a clear answer, [our analysis] ends there . . . .” Id.
However, “[i]f the meaning of the statute is ambiguous,
[we] may resort to canons of statutory interpretation to help
resolve the ambiguity.” Auburn Hous. Auth. v. Martinez, 277
F.3d 138, 143 (2d Cir. 2002) (citation omitted). Section
6751(b)(1) provides, in relevant part:
No penalty under this title shall be assessed
unless the initial determination of such
assessment is personally approved (in writing)
by the immediate supervisor of the individual
making such determination or such higher
level official as the Secretary may designate.
I.R.C. § 6751(b)(1).
We part ways with the Graev majority in its view that
the statutory language is clear. See Graev, 2016 WL 6996650,
at *10. The provision clearly requires written approval of
the “initial determination of . . . assessment” before a
penalty can be assessed. Its clarity ends there. The
provision contains no express requirement that the written
approval be obtained at any particular time prior to
assessment. The Graev majority read the absence of specific
language as to when the prior approval need be obtained to
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mean that no specific timing requirement exists and thus
the written approval need only be obtained at some, but no
particular, time prior to assessment. We find ambiguity,
however, where the Graev majority found none.
Understanding § 6751 and appreciating its ambiguity
requires proficiency with the deficiency process.
“Assessment” is the formal recording of a taxpayer’s tax
liability on the tax rolls.22 See I.R.C. § 6203 (stating that an
assessment is “made by recording the liability of the
taxpayer in the office of the Secretary in accordance with
Treasury Regulation § 301.6203‐1 provides:
22
The district director and the director of the
regional service center shall appoint one or more
assessment officers. . . . The assessment shall be
made by an assessment officer signing the
summary record of assessment. The summary
record, through supporting records, shall provide
identification of the taxpayer, the character of the
liability assessed, the taxable period, if applicable,
and the amount of the assessment. The amount of
the assessment shall, in the case of tax shown on a
return by the taxpayer, be the amount so shown,
and in all other cases the amount of the
assessment shall be the amount shown on the
supporting list or record. The date of the
assessment is the date the summary record is
signed by an assessment officer.
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rules or regulations prescribed by the Secretary”). It is
“essentially a bookkeeping notation” of what the taxpayer
is required to pay the Government. Laing v. United States,
423 U.S. 161, 170 n.13 (1976); see Hibbs v. Winn, 542 U.S. 88,
115 (2004) (Kennedy, J., dissenting). In essence, it is the last
of a number of steps required before the IRS can collect a
“deficiency”—a tax liability greater than what the taxpayer
reported on his return. Before it can “assess” a deficiency,
the IRS must first determine a “deficiency” in a taxpayer’s
liability. See I.R.C. § 6201(a). The IRS then announces to the
taxpayer in a notice of deficiency its intention to assess that
deficiency. See I.R.C. § 6212(a). If the taxpayer does not file
a Tax Court petition within 90 days, “the deficiency . . .
shall be assessed.” I.R.C. § 6213(c). If he does file a Tax
Court petition for a “redetermination of the deficiency”
within the 90‐day period, however, the IRS is restricted
from assessing the deficiency “until the decision of the Tax
Court has become final.” I.R.C. § 6213(a). It is then the Tax
Court’s job to determine whether a deficiency should be
assessed and, if so, the amount thereof. See I.R.C. §§ 6214(a)
(“[T]he Tax Court shall have jurisdiction to redetermine the
correct amount of the deficiency . . . .”), 6215(a) (“[T]he
entire amount redetermined as the deficiency by the
decision of the Tax Court which has become final shall be
assessed . . . .”).
In light of the historical meaning of “assessment,” we
agree with the Graev dissent that the phrase “initial
determination of such assessment” is ambiguous. See
Graev, 2016 WL 6996650 at *31 (Gustafson, J., dissenting). If
“assessment” is the formal recording of a taxpayer’s tax
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liability, then § 6751(b) is unworkable: one can determine a
deficiency, see I.R.C. §§ 6212(a), 6213(a), and whether to
make an assessment, “but one cannot ‘determine’ an
‘assessment.’” Graev, 2016 WL 6996650 at *31 (Gustafson, J.,
dissenting). We must therefore “consult legislative history
and other tools of statutory construction to discern
Congress’s meaning.” United States v. Gayle, 342 F.3d 89, 93
(2d Cir. 2003). It is particularly useful to “consider reliable
legislative history” in cases like this where “the statute is
susceptible to divergent understandings and, equally
important, where there exists authoritative legislative
history that assists in discerning what Congress actually
meant.” Id. at 94. “The most enlightening source of
legislative history is generally a committee report,
particularly a conference committee report, which we have
identified as among ‘the most authoritative and reliable
materials of legislative history.’” Id. (quoting Disabled in
Action of Metro. N.Y. v. Hammons, 202 F.3d 110, 124 (2d Cir.
2000)).
The report from the Senate Finance Committee on
§ 6751(b) states clearly the purpose of the provision and
thus Congress’s intent: “The Committee believes that
penalties should only be imposed where appropriate and
not as a bargaining chip.” S. Rep. No. 105‐174, at 65 (1998).
The statute was meant to prevent IRS agents from
threatening unjustified penalties to encourage taxpayers to
settle. IRS Restructuring: Hearings on H.R. 2676 Before the S.
Comm. on Finance, 105th Cong. 92 (1998) (statement of
Stefan F. Tucker, Chair‐Elect, Section of Taxation, American
Bar Association) (“[T]he IRS will often say, if you don’t
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settle, we are going to assert the penalties.”). That history
strongly rebuts the Graev majority’s view that written
approval may be accomplished at any time prior to, even if
just before, assessment. Allowing, as would the Graev
majority, an unapproved initial determination of the
penalty to proceed through administrative proceedings,
settlement negotiations, and potential Tax Court
proceedings, only to be approved sometime prior to
assessment would do nothing to stem the abuses
§ 6751(b)(1) was meant to prevent. The Graev dissent put it
succinctly:
Th[e majority’s] construction is implausible in
the extreme—especially in an instance in
which a penalty assertion becomes the subject
of Tax Court litigation. Once Chief Counsel
had argued and the Tax Court had held that
the taxpayer is liable for an assessment, the
supervisor’s Johnny‐come‐lately approval of
the “initial determination” would add nothing
to the process. And where the Tax Court had
held the taxpayer not liable for the penalty, the
supervisor’s consideration of the matter would
then be completely moot.
Graev, 2016 WL 6996650 at *32 (Gustafson, J., dissenting).
The Graev majority gave short shrift to the legislative
history, suggesting that the Tax Court’s confirmation in the
deficiency proceeding that the penalty was appropriate in
Graev’s case (regardless of compliance with § 6751(b))
cured any concerns that the penalty was used as a
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bargaining chip. Graev, 2016 WL 6996650, at *14. That the
penalty may have been appropriate in Graev, however, does
not change Congress’s intent or alleviate its concerns. If
deficiency proceeding review of penalty determinations
were sufficient to deter or detect the IRS’s improper
leveraging of undue penalties, then Congress would not
have felt compelled to enact § 7491(c), which places the
burden of production on the IRS in any court proceeding
regarding the liability of a taxpayer for any penalty, along
with § 6751. More to the point, Tax Court review does not
solve the problem—penalties could still be used as
bargaining chips to prompt settlement negotiations and, if
successful, the Tax Court would be none the wiser (since
the taxpayer would have settled, rather than have filed a
Tax Court petition where the propriety of the penalty could
be litigated).
Moreover, that the Tax Court found that the penalty
was not improperly used as a bargaining chip in Graev
could just as easily indicate that § 6751 (even if the written
approval had not yet been obtained) is having its intended
effect. Indeed, the IRS’s current administrative practice
requires a supervisor’s approval to be noted on the form
reflecting the examining agent’s penalty determination or
otherwise be documented in the applicable workpapers.
IRM 20.1.5.1.4.1 (Dec. 13, 2016); accord IRM 20.1.5.1.6(4)
(July 1, 2008); see also IRM 20.1.1.2.3(6) (Aug. 5, 2014) (“The
managerial review and approval must be documented in
writing and retained in the case file.”); IRM 20.1.1.2.3(7)
(Aug. 5, 2014) (“[T]he IRS may wish to provide the taxpayer
with a courtesy copy of the document showing that a
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manager approved the penalties.”). Of course, the IRS’s
internal guidance is neither legally binding nor entitled to
more deference than its persuasive value. See Reno v. Koray,
515 U.S. 50, 61 (1995); Buffalo Transp., Inc. v. United States,
844 F.3d 381, 385 (2d Cir. 2016) (citing Skidmore v. Swift &
Co., 323 U.S. 134 (1944)). But, unlike the Graev majority, we
do not find the guidance merely “salutary” and
“immaterial to our conclusion.” Graev, 2016 WL 6996650 at
*12. Rather, it is a persuasive signal of the IRS’s reading of
§ 6751 to require, as Congress intended, supervisory
approval prior to the issuance of a notice of deficiency.
If supervisory approval is to be required at all, it
must be the case that the approval is obtained when the
supervisor has the discretion to give or withhold it. 23 That
discretion is lost once the Tax Court decision becomes final:
The Graev court was divided over the import of the clause of
§ 6751(b) requiring written approval of the initial determination
of assessment either by “the immediate supervisor of the
individual making such determination” or by “such higher level
official as the Secretary may designate.” The dissent argued that,
by using the present participle “making,” as opposed to a past‐
tense verb form (e.g., “supervisor of the individual who made
such determination”), the statute requires that the supervisory
approval occur when “the individual [is] making such
determination.” Id. at *30 (Gustafson, J., dissenting) (alteration
in original) (quoting § 6751(b)(1)). While we are inclined to
disagree with that construction for much the same reasons as did
the Graev majority, see id. at *11 & n.15, it matters not to our
analysis. It is that supervisory approval is required at all that
persuades us the dissent got it right.
23
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at that point, § 6215(a) provides that “the entire amount
redetermined as the deficiency . . . shall be assessed”
(emphasis added). Thus, supervisory (or designated higher
official) approval, in order to be of any consequence, must
necessarily be obtained before the Tax Court’s decision
becomes final. After that point, the IRS loses discretion
whether to assess the penalty. See I.R.C. § 6215(a).
It is not enough that approval be given before the Tax
Court proceeding ends, however; for the supervisor’s
discretion to be given force, the approval must be issued
before the Tax Court proceeding is even initiated. Section
6751 requires supervisory approval of “the initial
determination of such assessment” (emphasis added). As
the Graev dissent points out, the word “initial” is defined as
“having to do with, indicating, or occurring at the
beginning.” Webster’s New World College Dictionary 735
(4th ed. 2010); see also Black’s Law Dictionary 460 (7th Ed.
1999) (offering as an example of the term “initial
determination” the “first determination made by the Social
Security Administration of a person’s eligibility for
benefits”). While the IRS might still have discretion to
concede a penalty after a Tax Court proceeding has
commenced, such determination would be final. The
statute would make little sense if it permitted written
approval of the “initial determination” up until and even
contemporaneously with the IRS’s final determination. In
essence, the last moment the approval of the initial
determination actually matters is immediately before the
taxpayer files suit (or penalties are asserted in a Tax Court
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proceeding).24 And for that matter, because a taxpayer can
file a tax court petition at any time after receiving a notice
of deficiency, the truly consequential moment of approval
is the IRS’s issuance of the notice of deficiency (or the filing
of an answer or amended answer asserting penalties).
Thus, we hold that § 6751(b)(1) requires written approval of
the initial penalty determination no later than the date the
IRS issues the notice of deficiency (or files an answer or
amended answer) asserting such penalty.25
We note that the Commissioner may, and often does, assert
§ 6662(a) penalties in answers or amended answers, and the Tax
Court obtains jurisdiction pursuant to § 6214. See Graev, 2016
WL 6996650, at *9 n.9. Where the IRS moves for leave to assert
penalties in an amended answer, the Tax Court considers the
potential prejudice to the taxpayer of allowing the amendment.
See Estate of Quick v. Comm’r, 110 T.C. 172, 180 (1998).
24
The Graev majority and dissent argued at length about why the
effective date of § 6751(b)(1) supports their respective positions.
As originally enacted, the statute provided: “The amendments
made by this section shall apply to notices issued, and penalties
assessed, after December 31, 2000.” Internal Revenue Service
Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998, Pub. L. No. 105‐206,
§ 3306(c), 112 Stat. 685, 744. The Graev majority read the
effective‐date provision to apply differently to subsections (a)
and (b) of § 6751. That is, that “notices issued” and “penalties
issued” components correspond, respectively, to § 6751(a)
(relating to the computation of penalty included in a “notice”)
and § 6751(b) (relating to approval of penalty “assessment”).
Read that way, the effective‐date provision, says the Graev
majority, “clearly indicates that [§ 6751(b)] is focused on
25
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In that vein, we further hold that compliance with
§ 6751(b) is part of the Commissioner’s burden of
production and proof in a deficiency case in which a
penalty is asserted. As mentioned above, the
Commissioner has the burden of production in any penalty
proceeding. See I.R.C. § 7491(c) (“[T]he Secretary shall have
the burden of production in any court proceeding with
respect to the liability of any individual for any penalty
. . . .”). Congress’s intent is clear from the legislative history
of § 7491(c):
[I]n any court proceeding, the Secretary must
initially come forward with evidence that it is
appropriate to apply a particular penalty to
the taxpayer before the court can impose the
penalty. This provision is not intended to
assessment rather than on some earlier event.” Graev, 2016 WL
6996650, at *13. The Graev dissent, by contrast, reads the
effective‐date provision to apply equally to both subsections of §
6751. The dissent sees “notices issued” to refer to penalties for
which notices of deficiencies are required, and “penalties
assessed” to refer to “assessable penalties” that do not require a
“notice.” Id. at *30‐31 (Gustafson, J., dissenting).
While both sides present persuasive arguments and
reasonable interpretations of the effective‐date provision, we do
not need to go to such lengths here. Even were we to credit the
Graev majority’s reading, we do not believe that this ambiguous
provision overcomes the legislative history and requires the
incongruous effects that flow from the majority’s (and the
Commissioner’s) approach.
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require the Secretary to introduce evidence of
elements such as reasonable cause or
substantial authority. Rather, the Secretary
must come forward initially with evidence
regarding the appropriateness of applying a
particular penalty to the taxpayer; if the
taxpayer believes that, because of reasonable
cause, substantial authority, or a similar
provision, it is inappropriate to impose the
penalty, it is the taxpayer’s responsibility (and
not the Secretary’s obligation) to raise those
issues.
H. Rep. No. 105‐599, at 241 (1998) (Conf. Rep.). It is
incumbent on the Commissioner, in order to meet his
burden of production, to “come forward with sufficient
evidence indicating that it is appropriate to impose the
relevant penalty.” Higbee v. Comm’r, 116 T.C. 438, 446
(2001). Because § 6751(b)(1) provides that “[n]o penalty . . .
shall be assessed” (emphasis added) unless the written‐
approval requirement is satisfied, it would be inappropriate
to impose a penalty where § 6751(b)(1) was not satisfied.
Read in conjunction with § 7491(c), the written‐approval
requirement of § 6751(b)(1) is appropriately viewed as an
element of a penalty claim, and therefore part of the IRS’s
prima facie penalty case.26
The written‐approval requirement—as a mandatory, statutory
element of a penalty claim—is distinct from affirmative defenses
based on “reasonable cause, substantial authority, or a similar
26
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The only remaining issue is whether, in light of the
foregoing, the Tax Court abused its discretion in declining
to consider Chai’s post‐trial argument that the
Commissioner had not met its burden of proof with respect
to compliance with the written‐approval requirement of
§ 6751(b)(1). Chai argues the Tax Court’s timeliness ruling
was wrong in three ways: (1) the issue of the
Commissioner’s failure to meet his burden could not have
arisen until after he failed to do so; (2) the Commissioner
had two separate opportunities after trial to supplement the
record with evidence of compliance, but never did so,
instead arguing that he was prejudiced by the timing of
Chai’s argument; and (3) because Chai raised the issue in
his post‐trial reply to the Commissioner’s post‐trial First
Amendment to Answer, its untimeliness was cured by the
Tax Court’s “relation back” rule.
Given that § 6751(b)(1) written approval is an
element of a penalty claim and therefore the
Commissioner’s burden to prove, Chai’s post‐trial
argument was tantamount to a post‐trial motion for
judgment as a matter of law. In other words, Chai is
essentially arguing that the evidence was legally
insufficient to sustain the verdict on the penalty claim.
Such challenges are properly (if not necessarily) made post‐
trial or at least after the party with the burden rests; the
burdened party—here, the Commissioner—could not have
failed to meet his burden until he concluded his
provision,” which need be raised by the taxpayer. See H. Rep.
No. 105‐599, at 241.
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presentation of evidence. In other words, as Chai explains,
the sufficiency of the evidence “could not, by definition,
become an issue until after the Commissioner failed to
establish the elements of its penalty claim.” Chai Br. 55.
In that sense, there was no timeliness issue and the
Tax Court’s decision was not, as the Commissioner argues,
discretionary as to whether to consider the issue at all.
Rather, the Tax Court should have applied the standard
applicable to legal‐sufficiency challenges, which is the same
here as below: whether there was sufficient evidence to
permit a rational juror to find in the Commissioner’s favor.
See McCarthy v. N.Y.C. Tech. Coll. of City Univ. of N.Y., 202
F.3d 161, 167 (2d Cir. 2000). If the parties disagreed as to
whether the written approval was an element of the
Commissioner’s penalty case, as they do here, they could
have litigated that before the Tax Court at any point at
which it was raised, including post‐trial. The Tax Court
then concluding one way or the other could resolve
whether the evidence was sufficient to uphold the penalty.
Even more, it was not Chai’s obligation to alert the
Commissioner to the elements of his claim, and we fail to
see how raising the issue post‐trial denied the
Commissioner the opportunity to properly rebut the
argument. Indeed, as Chai notes, “the burden of
production [i]s ‘a party’s obligation to come forward with
evidence to support its claim.’” Chai Reply Br. 30 (quoting
Dir., Office of Workers’ Comp. Programs, Dep’t of Labor v.
Greenwich Collieries, 512 U.S. 267, 272 (1994) (emphasis
added)). The Commissioner and the Tax Court’s approach
would require a party to move to dismiss each element of a
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claim before trial in order to preserve a sufficiency
argument post‐trial. That cannot be the case. Thus, the Tax
Court was obligated to consider the issue of whether the
Commissioner had met its burden.
In responding to Chai’s argument that the
Commissioner had multiple opportunities to supplement
the record with evidence of compliance, the Commissioner
acknowledges that it “is true but irrelevant.” Comm’r Br.
75 (citing Kaufman v. Comm’r, 784 F.3d 56, 71 (1st Cir. 2015)).
In Kaufman, the party challenging the Tax Court’s penalty
ruling raised the non‐compliance issue for the first time on
appeal. 784 F.3d at 71. The First Circuit deemed the
argument unpreserved and rejected the Kaufmans’
argument “that it was the IRS’s burden to show that the
requirements were met, and that the Commissioner cannot
now enlarge the record to demonstrate compliance with
section 6751.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted). The
First Circuit stated that “the question whose burden it was
to show compliance with § 6751 is beside the point,” as
“[t]he Kaufmans had the responsibility of arguing in the Tax
Court that the Commissioner had not complied with the
statute in order to put the Commissioner on notice that the
issue was in dispute.” Id. Having failed to make the
argument below, the First Circuit held, “the Kaufmans
cannot now fault the Commissioner for introducing no
evidence to rebut it.” Id. (citing Hormel v. Helvering, 312
U.S. 552, 556 (1941)).
Here, by contrast, Chai did raise the written‐approval
issue below and the Tax Court gave the Commissioner an
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opportunity to rebut it. The Tax Court should have
considered the argument on its merits, as should we.
With respect to whether there was sufficient evidence
of compliance with § 6751, the answer is clear: there was
not. In fact, the Commissioner has never said that there
was. Thus, the Commissioner has failed to meet his burden
of proving compliance with § 6751, a prerequisite to
assessment of the accuracy‐related penalty. We therefore
reverse the portion of the Tax Court’s order upholding the
penalty assessment.
CONCLUSION
For the foregoing reasons, we hereby (1) VACATE
the Tax Court’s jurisdictional ruling and, because Chai
concedes that the $2 million payment is fully taxable,
REMAND the case to the Tax Court to enter a revised
decision upholding the additional income‐tax deficiency;
(2) AFFIRM the portion of the Tax Court’s order upholding
the self‐employment tax deficiency; and (3) REVERSE the
portion of the Tax Court’s order upholding the accuracy‐
related penalty.
71
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