Doe v. Lt. Gen. Franklin Lee Hagenbec
Filing
OPINION, Dissenting, by judge DC, FILED.[2113125] [15-1890]
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page1 of 31
DENNY CHIN, Circuit Judge:
I respectfully dissent.
Assuming, as we must at this juncture of the case, that the
allegations of the amended complaint are true, plaintiff‐appellee Jane Doe was
subjected to pervasive and serious sexual harassment, including rape, at the
United States Military Academy at West Point (ʺWest Pointʺ). The harassment
resulted from practices and policies that the individual defendants permitted to
proliferate and, indeed, implemented or encouraged, depriving Doe of an equal
education because of her gender. The amended complaint alleges that the
individual defendants created, promoted, and tolerated a misogynistic culture,
including by, for example, setting separate curriculum requirements for women
and men (self‐defense for first‐year female cadets and boxing for first‐year male
cadets), requiring sexually transmitted disease testing for female but not male
cadets, warning female cadets that it was their burden to spurn sexual advances
from male cadets while openly speaking to male cadets about sexual exploits and
encouraging them to take advantage of any opportunity to have sex, imposing
inadequate punishment for offenders, and permitting sexually explicit, violent,
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page2 of 31
and degrading group chants during team building exercises, with verses such as
the following:
I wish that all the ladies / were bricks in a pile / and I
was a mason/ Iʹd lay them all in style. . . .
I wish that all the ladies / were holes in the road / and I
was a dump truck / Iʹd fill ʹem with my load. . . .
I wish that all the ladies / were statues of Venus / and I
was a sculptor / Iʹd break ʹem with my penis.
Appʹx 15.
If West Point were a private college receiving federal funding or
another public educational institution and allegations such as these were proven,
there clearly would be a violation of Doeʹs rights and she could seek recourse for
her injuries. The Government argues, however, that the individual defendants
are immune from suit because they are military officers. And while it
acknowledges that ʺ[s]exual assault in the military and at service academies
cannot be tolerated,ʺ it argues that Doe is a service member and that ʺservice
members may not sue their superiors for injuries that arise incident to military
service,ʺ Appellantsʹ Br. at 2, relying on the concept of intramilitary immunity as
set forth in Feres v. United States, 340 U.S. 135 (1950), and its progeny. The
majority accepts the argument.
2
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page3 of 31
I do not agree that the Feres doctrine applies, for in my view Doeʹs
injuries did not arise ʺincident to military service.ʺ When she was subjected to a
pattern of discrimination, and when she was raped, she was not in military
combat or acting as a soldier or performing military service. Rather, she was
simply a student, and her injuries were incident only to her status as a student.
When she was raped, she was taking a walk on a college campus with another
student, someone she thought was a friend. The actions and decisions she now
challenges had nothing to do with military discipline and command; instead, she
seeks recourse for injuries caused by purported failures on the part of school
administrators acting in an academic capacity overseeing a learning environment
for students.
While West Point is indeed a military facility, it is quintessentially
an educational institution. As its website proclaims, it is ʺone of the nationʹs top‐
ranked colleges,ʺ and it provides its ʺstudents with a top‐notch education.ʺ1 In
my view, the Feres doctrine does not bar Doeʹs equal protection claims. For these
Letter from Col. Deborah J. McDonald, West Point Director of
Admissions, to High School Seniors, http://www.usma.edu/admissions/
Shared%20Documents/COL‐web‐letter.pdf; see also United States Military Academy,
http://www.westpoint.edu/ (last visited Aug. 29, 2017) (ʺThe Academy provides a
superb four‐year education, which focuses on the leader development of cadets in the
academic, military, and physical domains, all underwritten by adherence to a code of
honor.ʺ).
1
3
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page4 of 31
and other reasons discussed below, I would affirm the district courtʹs decision
denying the individual defendantsʹ motion to dismiss the equal protection claim.
Accordingly, I dissent.
I.
As alleged in the amended complaint, the facts are summarized as
follows:
Doe is a former cadet who resigned from West Point in 2010 after
completing two years. She grew up in a military family and graduated near the
top of her class in high school. At West Point she ʺthrived academically,
participated in extracurricular activities, and ranked high in her class.ʺ Appʹx 14.
Because she left West Point before the start of her third year, she never assumed
active status and had no obligation to enlist as a soldier. See 32 C.F.R. §
217.6(f)(6)(ii)(A).2 Her obligations to the military did not vest, and she was not
contractually required to repay the cost of her education.
ʺFourth and Third Classmen (First and Second Years). A fourth or third
classman disenrolled will retain their MSO [Military Service obligation] in accordance
with 10 U.S.C. chapter 47 and DoD Instruction 1304.25 but have no active duty service
obligation (ADSO).ʺ 32 C.F.R. § 217.6(f)(6)(ii)(A) (emphasis added). See also 32 C.F.R. §
217.4(d) (ʺCadets and midshipmen disenrolling or those disenrolled after the beginning of
the third academic year from a Service academy normally will be called to active duty in
enlisted status, if fit for service.ʺ) (emphasis added).
2
4
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page5 of 31
West Point has an enrollment of approximately 4,600 cadets and a
faculty of some 600 individuals, of whom three‐quarters are military personnel
and one‐quarter are civilian employees. Cadets live on‐campus in dormitories all
four years and eat in dining halls. The curriculum ʺis designed to train ʹofficer‐
leaders of character to serve the Army and the Nation,ʹʺ Appʹx 3, and thirty‐six
majors are offered, including Politics, Art, Philosophy and Literature,
Engineering, History, Physics and Sociology.3 West Point is accredited by the
Middle States Commission on Higher Education, the accreditation unit for the
Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.4 Cadets may participate in
numerous extracurricular activities, including athletics, honor societies, academic
competitions, and musical groups. West Point fields athletic teams in twenty‐
four NCAA Division I sports and twenty‐one club sports. Upon graduation,
West Point cadets earn a Bachelor of Science degree and become commissioned
as second lieutenants in the U.S. Army.
West Point Curriculum, http://www.usma.edu/curriculum/SitePages/
Home.aspx.
3
The Middle States Commission on Higher Education conducts
accreditation activities for institutions of higher education in states in the mid‐Atlantic
region, including New York. Middle States Commission on Higher Education,
http://www.msche.org/ (last visited Aug. 29, 2017). West Point is one of many
institutions accredited by the organization. See Institution Directory, Middle States
Commission on Higher Education, http://www.msche.org/institutions_directory.asp
(last visited Aug. 29, 2017).
4
5
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page6 of 31
Approximately 200 of the 1,300 cadets in Doeʹs entering class were
women. Doe was often the only woman in a squad of approximately ten cadets.
During her time at West Point, she was subjected to pervasive sexual harassment
and a culture of sexual violence. Her classmates regularly made misogynistic
and sexually aggressive comments, which were frequently ignored and
sometimes condoned by West Point administrators. During team‐building
exercises, cadets would march and sing ʺsexual, misogynistic chants,ʺ such as the
one quoted above, in view and earshot of faculty and administrators. Appʹx 16.
Male cadets often used derogatory terms to describe women and frequently
made contemptuous comments about the physical appearance of women. West
Point officials ignored or endorsed these comments, and openly joked with male
cadets about sexual exploits. Male faculty members routinely expressed
sympathy with male cadets over the lack of opportunities to have sex, and
suggested that they seize any chance they could to do so.
There were other disparities in the treatment of male and female
cadets. West Point officials required mandatory annual sexually transmitted
disease (ʺSTDʺ) testing for female cadets, but not male cadets, explaining that
STDs were more harmful to women than to men and therefore it was the
6
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page7 of 31
responsibility of women to prevent the spread of these diseases. In the Physical
Education program in the first year at West Point, male cadets were required to
take boxing while female cadets were required to take self‐defense.
While West Point provided training for the prevention of sexual
assault and harassment, the training was inadequate. West Point officials
provided only limited training on the concepts of respect and consent, while
sending the message to female cadets that it was ʺa womanʹs responsibilityʺ to
prevent sexual assault and that ʺit was their job to say ʹno,ʹ when faced with
inevitable advances from their male colleagues.ʺ Appʹx 18. West Point officials
failed to punish cadets who perpetrated sexual assaults and created an
environment in which male cadets understood that they could sexually assault
female colleagues with ʺnear impunity,ʺ while female cadets understood ʺthat
they risked their own reputations and military careersʺ by reporting sexual
assaults against them. Appʹx 18. The vast majority of faculty members and
administrators were male.
A 2010 Department of Defense (ʺDoDʺ) survey found that fifty‐one
percent of female cadets and nine percent of male cadets reported that they had
7
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page8 of 31
experienced sexual harassment at West Point.5 The survey found that more than
nine percent of the female cadets at West Point experienced unwanted sexual
contact in 2010, and some eighty‐six percent of these women did not report the
incident.6 Of the female cadets who did not report unwanted sexual contact,
seventy‐one percent feared ʺpeople gossiping about themʺ and seventy percent
ʺfelt uncomfortableʺ making a report.7 In 2011, DoD found that West Point was
only ʺpartially in complianceʺ with sexual harassment and assault policies, and
that West Pointʹs prevention training was ʺdeficient,ʺ did not meet the minimum
standard of annual training for cadets, lacked an institutionalized comprehensive
sexual assault prevention and response curriculum, and failed to comply with
DoD directives intended to reduce rape and sexual assault.8
See Paul J. Cook & Rachel N. Lipari, Defense Manpower Data Center, 2010
Service Academy Gender Relations Survey, at iv‐v (2010), http://www.sapr.mil/public/
docs/research/FINAL_SAGR_2010_Overview_Report.pdf.
5
6
Id. at iv‐v.
Id. at v. Underreporting of sexual violence on college campuses is a
significant issue. See Laura L. Dunn, Addressing Sexual Violence in Higher Education:
Ensuring Compliance with the Clery Act, Title IX and VAWA, 15 Geo. J. Gender & L. 563,
566 (2014).
7
The statistics at West Point are representative of a large‐scale epidemic of
sexual assault and harassment of women on college campuses around the country. A
2006 study concluded that ʺ[o]ne in five women is sexually assaulted while in college.ʺ
See White House Task Force To Protect Students from Sexual Assault, Not Alone: The
First Report of the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault 6 (2014),
https://www.justice.gov/ovw/page/file/905942/download. A 2015 survey of 27 U.S.
8
8
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page9 of 31
Defendants‐appellants Lieutenant General Franklin Lee Hagenbeck,
the Superintendent of West Point from July 2006 to July 2010, and Brigadier
General William E. Rapp, Commander of Cadets at West Point from 2009 to 2011,
were responsible for administering the sexual assault prevention and response
program and the training of cadets on campus during the relevant time period.
According to the amended complaint, however, instead of implementing
programs and policies to educate and protect students, defendants created,
promulgated, implemented, and administered the policies, practices, and
customs at issue. The 2009‐2010 DoD Annual Report on Sexual Harassment and
Violence at Military Service Academies found that trends of unwanted sexual
contact experienced by female cadets increased during the time Hagenbeck and
Rapp were, respectively, Superintendent and Commander of Cadets.
On May 8, 2010, around 1 a.m., a male cadet stopped by Doeʹs
dormitory room and invited her for a walk. It was after curfew, and Doe had
earlier taken a sedative prescribed to help her sleep because she had been
universities by the Association of American Universities found that approximately one‐
third of female undergraduates reported experiencing non‐consensual sexual contact at
least once. David Cantor et al., Westat, Report on the Association of American Universities
Campus Climate Survey on Sexual Assault and Sexual Misconduct, at xi (2015),
http://www.aau.edu/uploadedFiles/AAU_Publications/AAU_Reports/
Sexual_Assault_Campus_Survey/AAU_Campus_Climate_Survey_12_14_15.pdf.
9
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page10 of 31
suffering from anxiety and stress. Nonetheless, she agreed to go with him. They
eventually walked into an administrative building and the male cadet began
drinking alcohol, offering Doe a few sips. She took them, and then lost
consciousness as the alcohol mixed with her medication. The male cadet then
took advantage, attacking Doe and having ʺforcible, non‐consensual intercourse
with her,ʺ on the concrete floor of a boiler room. Appʹx 22. She woke up in her
own bed a few hours later, with dirt on her clothes and hair, bruises on her lower
back, and blood between her legs. Three days later, when she went for a vaginal
examination at West Pointʹs health clinic, there were signs of vaginal tearing. She
eventually left West Point, enrolling at a four‐year college from which she earned
a degree.
Doe brought this action below against the United States under the
Federal Tort Claims Act (the ʺFTCAʺ), 28 U.S.C. §§ 1346(b), 2671 et seq., and the
Little Tucker Act, 28 U.S.C. § 1346(a)(2), as well as against Hagenbeck and Rapp
in their individual capacities under Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of Federal
Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S. 388 (1971), for due process and equal protection
violations. The district court dismissed the claims against the United States as
well as the due process claim, and permitted Doe to pursue only her equal
10
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page11 of 31
protection claim against the individual defendants. The district court held that
the Feres doctrine did not bar the equal protection claim and that the individual
defendants were not entitled to qualified immunity. Only the district courtʹs
denial of defendantsʹ motion to dismiss the equal protection claim is before us on
this interlocutory appeal.9
II.
A.
Equal Protection
Since 1971, the Supreme Court ʺhas repeatedly recognized that
neither federal nor state government acts compatibly with the equal protection
principle when a law or official policy denies to women, simply because they are
women, full citizenship stature ‐‐ equal opportunity to aspire, achieve,
participate in and contribute to society based on their individual talents and
capacities.ʺ United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515, 532 (1996) (ʺVMIʺ) (citing, inter
alia, Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971)). In VMI, the Court held that Virginiaʹs policy
of excluding women from enrolling in its historically single‐sex military college
violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. 518 U.S. at
Because the majority holds that Doeʹs equal protection claims are barred
by the Feres doctrine, it does not reach the Governmentʹs alternative argument that the
individual defendants are entitled to qualified immunity. Accordingly, I do not discuss
the qualified immunity issue, but simply note that I believe the district court correctly
rejected the defense at the motion‐to‐dismiss stage.
9
11
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page12 of 31
534. Similarly, in Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718, 733
(1982), the Court held that a state universityʹs policy of admitting only women to
its nursing programs violated the Equal Protection Clause.
These principles apply not just to gender discrimination in
admissions to educational institutions but to the continued treatment of students
after they have been admitted. See, e.g., Fitzgerald v. Barnstable Sch. Comm., 555
U.S. 246, 258 (2009) (holding plaintiffs could pursue claims against school system
and superintendent for ʺunconstitutional gender discrimination in schoolsʺ
under § 1983, where defendants purportedly failed to address sexually harassing
conduct by another student). Courts have thus recognized equal protection
claims where gender discrimination created a hostile educational environment.
See, e.g., Hayut v. State Univ. of New York, 352 F.3d 733, 743‐46 (2d Cir. 2003)
(allowing § 1983 equal protection claim by student against professor for hostile
educational environment created by ʺderogatory and sexually‐charged
commentsʺ). Moreover, the Supreme Court has recognized a Bivens claim for
gender discrimination, holding that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fifth
Amendment confers ʺa federal constitutional right to be free from gender
discrimination.ʺ Davis v. Passman, 442 U.S. 228, 235 (1979) (holding that former
12
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page13 of 31
congressional staff member could sue U.S. Congressman for damages under
Fifth Amendment for discriminating against her on basis of sex).
Equal protection and other constitutional principles have been
applied to the military and military institutions. In Frontiero v. Richardson, the
Court held that a statutory scheme for housing allowances and spousal medical
and dental benefits that applied different standards for male and female active
service members was ʺconstitutionally invalid.ʺ 411 U.S. 677, 688 (1973). See also
Fitzgerald, 555 U.S. at 257 (observing that students at ʺmilitary service schools and
traditionally single‐sex public colleges,ʺ which are exempt from Title IX of
Educational Amendments of 1972, 20 U.S.C. § 1681(a), could bring § 1983 claims
for violation of equal protection clause); VMI, 518 U.S. at 535‐36, 547‐54;
Schlesinger v. Ballard, 419 U.S. 498 (1975) (rejecting, but reaching merits, of claim
challenging different discharge policies for male and female officers, based on
then‐existing exclusion of women from combat roles). In Crawford v. Cushman,
we observed that ʺa succession of cases in this circuit and others had reiterated
the proposition that the military is subject to the Bill of Rights and its
constitutional implications.ʺ 531 F.2d 1114, 1120 (2d Cir. 1976); see also Dibble v.
13
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page14 of 31
Fenimore, 339 F.3d 120, 128 (2d Cir. 2003) (ʺWe decline to adopt a categorical rule
on the justiciability of intramilitary suits.ʺ).
The military has itself adopted regulations to address the issue of
gender discrimination and sexual harassment. Army regulations
unambiguously prohibit sexual harassment, and commanders and supervisors
are obliged to ensure that sexual harassment is not tolerated.10 All military
academies (including West Point) must comply with regulations promulgated by
DoD as part of its Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Program.11
Hence, Doe was entitled, under the Fifth Amendment and the
Armyʹs own regulations, to an environment free from gender discrimination and
sexual harassment.
See, e.g., U.S. Army Reg. 600‐20, Ch. 7‐3(a) (Mar. 18, 2008) (ʺThe policy of
the Army is that sexual harassment is unacceptable conduct and will not be tolerated.ʺ);
id. Ch. 7‐3(b) (ʺThe POSH [Prevention of Sexual Harassment] is the responsibility of
every Soldier. . . . Leaders set the standard for Soldiers . . . to follow.ʺ); id. Ch. 7‐2(a)
(ʺCommanders and supervisors will . . . [e]nsure that assigned personnel . . . are familiar
with the Army policy on sexual harassment.ʺ); id. Ch. 7‐2(d) (ʺCommanders and
supervisors will . . . [s]et the standard.ʺ); id. Ch. 7‐4(a) (defining ʺsexual harassmentʺ to
include physical or verbal conduct); id. Ch. 7‐6(b) (ʺA hostile environment occurs when
Soldiers or civilians are subjected to offensive, unwanted and unsolicited comments, or
behaviors of a sexual nature [including] for example, the use of derogatory gender‐
biased terms, comments about body parts, suggestive pictures, explicit jokes, and
unwanted touching.ʺ). Army regulations expressly acknowledge that ʺ[s]exual
harassment is a form of gender discrimination.ʺ Id. Ch. 7‐4.
10
See 32 C.F.R. § 103.5; U.S. Depʹt of Def. Dir. 6495.01 (Jan. 23, 2012),
https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=761622.
11
14
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page15 of 31
B.
The Feres Doctrine
In 1950, the Supreme Court held in Feres v. United States that ʺthe
Government is not liable under the [FTCA] for injuries to servicemen where the
injuries arise out of or are in the course of activity incident to service.ʺ 340 U.S. at
146. Feres involved three cases, brought by or on behalf of servicemen against
the United States for personal injuries, sustained ʺwhile on active duty and not
on furlough,ʺ purportedly caused by the ʺnegligence of others in the armed
forces.ʺ Id. at 137‐38. In two of the cases, death resulted. Id. at 137. The Court
held that Congress did not intend to subject the Government to tort claims ʺby a
member of the armed services.ʺ Chappell v. Wallace, 462 U.S. 296, 299 (1963)
(interpreting Feres).
The Court later extended the concept of intramilitary immunity to
Bivens claims. A Bivens remedy is not available when ʺspecial factors counseling
hesitationʺ are present. Bivens, 403 U.S. at 396; see Ziglar v. Abbasi, 137 S. Ct. 1843,
1857 (2017) (ʺThe Courtʹs precedents now make clear that a Bivens remedy will
not be available if there are ʹspecial factors counseling hesitation in the absence of
affirmative action by Congress.ʹʺ (citation omitted)). In Chappell, the Court
recognized that ʺthe unique disciplinary structure of the military establishment
15
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page16 of 31
and Congressʹ activity in the field constitute ʹspecial factorsʹ which dictate that it
would be inappropriate to provide enlisted military personnel a Bivens‐type
remedy against their superior officers.ʺ Chappell, 462 U.S. at 304; see also United
States v. Stanley, 483 U.S. 669, 683‐84 (1987) (recognizing that rationales for
intramilitary immunity as explained in Feres are ʺspecial factorsʺ counseling
against Bivens relief, and ʺholding that no Bivens remedy is available for injuries
that ʹarise out of or are in the course of activity incident to serviceʹʺ) (quoting
Feres, 340 U.S. at 146).
At the same time, however, ʺour citizens in uniform may not be
stripped of basic civil rights simply because they have doffed their civilian
clothes.ʺ Earl Warren, The Bill of Rights and the Military, 37 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 181, 188
(1962) (quoted in Chappell, 462 U.S. at 304). As the Court noted in Chappell: ʺThis
Court has never held, nor do we now hold, that military personnel are barred
from all redress in civilian courts for constitutional wrongs suffered in the course
of military service.ʺ 462 U.S. at 304‐05. Indeed, members of the military have
been permitted, after Feres, to bring constitutional challenges against the
Government with respect to matters relating to the military. See Frontiero, 411
U.S. at 688; accord Regan v. Starcraft Marine, LLC, 524 F.3d 627, 640‐41 (5th Cir.
16
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page17 of 31
2008) (Feres did not bar suit brought by service member ʺengaged in purely
recreational activityʺ ʺnot related to any tactical or field training,ʺ even where
recreational facility was provided ʺto improve the morale and welfareʺ of service
members); Crawford, 531 F.2d at 1125‐27 (holding, where servicewoman was
discharged from Marines because she was pregnant, that her rights to equal
protection and due process were violated, and ordering award of damages). See
also Schlesinger, 419 U.S. at 508‐10; Parker v. Levy, 417 U.S. 733, 758‐60 (1974)
(rejecting, but reaching merits of, First Amendment challenge brought by Army
captain convicted by general court‐martial of violations of Uniform Code of
Military Justice, and observing that ʺthe members of the military are not
excluded from the protection granted by the First Amendmentʺ).
In cases decided after Feres, the Court has explained the ʺbroad
rationalesʺ underlying its determination that soldiers may not maintain tort suits
against the Government or members of the military for injuries arising incident
to military service. United States v. Johnson, 481 U.S. 681, 688 (1987). First, there is
a ʺunique relationship between the Government and military personnel,ʺ
Chappell, 462 U.S. at 299, that is ʺʹdistinctively federal in character.ʹʺ Johnson, 481
U.S. at 689 (quoting Feres, 340 U.S. at 143). The military function is performed ʺin
17
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page18 of 31
diverse parts of the country and the world,ʺ and when a service member is
injured ʺincident to service ‐‐ that is, because of his military relationship with the
Governmentʺ ‐‐ a uniform federal remedy should be available, and ʺthe fortuity
of the situs of the alleged negligenceʺ should not dictate whether the
Government is liable. Id.
Second, Congress has established alternative, statutory means of
compensation for military personnel injured incident to service. As the Court
observed in Johnson, ʺthe existence of these generous statutory disability and
death benefits is an independent reason why the Feres doctrine bars suit for
service‐related injuries.ʺ Id. It is not likely, the Court has concluded, that
Congress would have created ʺʹsystems of simple, certain, and uniform
compensation for injuries or death of those in the armed servicesʹʺ while
intending at the same time to permit lawsuits for service‐related injuries under
the FTCA. Chappell, 462 U.S. at 299 (quoting Feres, 340 U.S. at 144).12
In subsequent cases, the courts have recognized that ʺthe presence of a
compensation system, persuasive in Feres, does not of necessity preclude a suit for
negligence.ʺ United States v. Muniz, 374 U.S. 150, 160 (1963) (citing United States v.
Brown, 348 U.S. 110 (1954)); see also Taber v. Maine, 67 F.3d 1029, 1039 (2d Cir. 1995)
(ʺIndeed, the Supreme Court and several circuit courts (without reproof from the
Supreme Court) have subsequently . . . allowed FTCA claims in a significant number of
cases in which the injured plaintiffs were fully covered by the governmentʹs
compensation scheme.ʺ).
12
18
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page19 of 31
Third, suits based upon service‐related activity ʺʹwould involve the
judiciary in sensitive military affairs at the expense of military discipline and
effectiveness.ʹʺ Johnson, 481 U.S. at 691 (quoting Shearer, 473 U.S. at 57). Courts
should not intrude in military matters, the Court has explained, because ʺa suit
based upon service‐related activity necessarily implicates the military judgments
and decisions that are inextricably intertwined with the conduct of the military
mission.ʺ Johnson, 481 U.S. at 691; see United States v. Shearer, 473 U.S. 52, 59
(1985) (ʺFeres seems best explained by the peculiar and special relationship of the
soldier to his superiors, the effect of the maintenance of such suits on discipline,
and the extreme results that might obtain if suits . . . were allowed for negligent
orders given or negligent acts committed in the course of military duty.ʺ)
(internal quotation marks omitted).
In Taber v. Maine, after reviewing the Supreme Court case law, we
summarized the various considerations and held that:
an appropriate test for applying the Feres doctrine must
respect: (1) the Supreme Courtʹs stated concern for
keeping courts away from delicate questions involving
military discipline; (2) Feresʹs clear intention to replace
the contingencies of local tort law with a uniform
federal scheme; and (3) Feresʹs original desire that this
uniformity is to be achieved through exclusive recourse
19
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page20 of 31
to the federal system of military death and disability
benefits.
67 F.3d 1029, 1049 (2d Cir. 1995).
In Taber, the plaintiff Taber was a Navy ʺSeabeeʺ ‐‐ a construction
worker ‐‐ who was injured in Guam when his car was struck by a car driven by
another Navy serviceman, Maine. Id. Both were on active duty but on liberty,
and the accident occurred on a public road. Id. Taber had spent the day with his
companion and they were driving back to her home for the weekend when the
accident occurred. Id. He sued the United States and Maine for his injuries,
which he alleged were caused by Maineʹs negligent driving. Id. The
Government defended in part by relying on the Feres doctrine, and the district
court agreed, dismissing the claims. Id. at 1033.
On appeal, the Second Circuit reversed, holding that ʺthe link
between Taberʹs activity when he was injured and his military status is too frail
to support a Feres bar.ʺ Id. at 1050. The Court explained that ʺ[t]here is nothing
characteristically military about an employee who, after working‐hours are done,
goes off to spend a romantic weekend with a companion. . . . The accident that
followed, on the open road and on the way to [the companion]ʹs house[,] had
ʹnothing to do withʹ Taberʹs military career and was ʹnot caused by service except
20
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page21 of 31
in the sense that all human events depend upon what has already transpired.ʹʺ
Id. at 1051 (quoting Brooks v. United States, 337 U.S. 49, 52, 69 (1949)).
Taber teaches us that military status does not automatically trigger
Feres immunity. Rather, we apply the incident to service test by asking whether,
at the time the plaintiff was injured, she was ʺengaged in activities that fell
within the scope of [her] military employment.ʺ 67 F.3d at 1050. In Wake v.
United States, we reiterated that we must look at ʺthe totality of the germane
facts,ʺ and noted that ʺ[i]n examining whether a service memberʹs injuries were
incurred ʹincident to service,ʹ the courts consider various factors, with no single
factor being dispositive.ʺ 89 F.3d at 57‐58. In addition to ʺ[t]he individualʹs
status as a member of the military at the time of the incident,ʺ those factors
include: ʺthe relationship of the activity to the individualʹs membership in the
serviceʺ; ʺthe location of the conduct giving rise to the underlying tort claimʺ;
ʺwhether the activity is limited to military personnel and whether the service
member was taking advantage of a privilege or enjoying a benefit conferred as a
result of military service.ʺ Id. at 58.13
In Wake, we applied Feres to bar claims brought by a student in the
Reserve Officers Training Corps at a nonmilitary college. 89 F.3d at 55. The student
was an enlisted inactive member of the Navy Reserves who was assigned to ʺtemporary
dutyʺ to travel to a military clinic for a physical examination required to qualify as a
13
21
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page22 of 31
C.
Application of the Feres Doctrine to this Case
In my view, the Feres doctrine does not bar Doeʹs Bivens claim that
she was denied her constitutional right to equal access to education, for her
injuries did not arise ʺincident to service.ʺ First, as to the activities immediately
preceding Doeʹs rape, her ultimate injury, she was engaged in purely recreational
activity: she was out for an evening walk on a college campus, after curfew, with
another student who was a friend. Second, as to her broader activities at West
Point, she was a student attending college: she was taking classes, participating
in extracurricular activities, and learning to grow up and to be a self‐sufficient
and healthy individual. She was not a soldier on a battlefield or military base.
She was not traveling in a military car or boat or plane or pursuant to military
orders. She was not being treated by military doctors. She was not on duty or in
active service or on active status, and she was not yet obliged to enter into
flight navigator. Id. at 56. On the way back, while traveling in a military vehicle driven
by a Marine Corps sergeant, she was injured. Id. at 55‐56. We concluded, not
surprisingly, that the studentʹs injuries were sustained incident to service. See id. at 58‐
61. While Wake was indeed a student, she was on a ʺtemporary dutyʺ assignment and
was traveling in a military vehicle driven by an active service member. Moreover, she
received military benefits for her injury ‐‐ she ʺwas assigned a 100% disability rating
from the [Veterans Administration] on January 5, 1993, resulting in monthly VA
service‐connected compensation benefits of approximately $2,000 per month.ʺ Id. at 62.
22
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page23 of 31
military service. There was ʺnothing characteristically militaryʺ about what she
was doing, and her injuries did not arise out of military employment.
To be sure, West Point serves, to some extent, a military purpose,
and its cadets are indeed being trained to be soldiers and officers. As the
Government and the majority note, West Point cadets are considered members of
the military. Appellantsʹ Br. at 14; Maj. Op. at 18‐19 (citing 10 U.S.C. § 3075(a)‐
(b)(2) (including ʺcadets of the United States Military Academyʺ in the ʺRegular
Army,ʺ ʺa component of the Armyʺ)). But Doeʹs status as a member of the
military is not, by itself, dispositive. See Wake, 89 F.3d at 58‐61 (declining to
attribute dispositive weight to plaintiffʹs status as a cadet but looking at all
germane circumstances); Taber, 67 F.3d at 1053 (holding that Feres was not a bar
where ʺ[o]ther than the naked fact that Taber was in the Navy at the time of his
injury, there is no government/plaintiff relationship of any significance in this
caseʺ). Rather, West Point functions principally as a school and Doe was
primarily a student; the concerns underlying the Supreme Courtʹs decision in
Feres and the ʺspecial factors counseling hesitationʺ in the intramilitary immunity
cases simply are not implicated here.
23
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page24 of 31
First, Doeʹs claims do not implicate ʺdelicate questions involving
military discipline.ʺ Taber, 67 F.3d at 1049. Her claims do not call into question
ʺthe military judgments and decisions that are inextricably intertwined with the
conduct of the military mission.ʺ Johnson, 481 U.S. at 691. The actions and
decisions of the individual defendants being challenged here do not implicate,
except perhaps in the most abstract sense, military discipline or military
judgment or military preparation.14 Instead, Doeʹs claims challenge academic
decisions and policies, and the individual defendants were acting as educators
and school administrators, tasked with providing their students with a positive
The Government argues that Doeʹs claims ʺcall[] into question the
management of the military,ʺ ʺspecifically their decisions concerning the discipline,
supervision, and control of West Point cadets.ʺ Appellantsʹ Br. at 10. I suppose that
may be so to a degree, but our observation in Taber applies here: ʺArguably, there is
some government/tortfeasor relationship that might entail minimal disciplinary
concerns even in this case, but these are both qualitatively and quantitatively different
from those that concerned us in [other cases implicating Feres], let alone those that
troubled the Supreme Court in Shearer.ʺ 67 F.3d at 1053. Moreover, as amici point out,
many graduates of military academies use their degrees to pursue other professional,
non‐military endeavors immediately after meeting minimum service requirements. See
Amicus Br. of Former Military Officers at 10 (citing Government Accountability Office
study reporting that 32% and 38% of academy graduate officers in, respectively, 2001
and 2005 left in their fifth year, the first year officers were eligible to leave military).
While a four‐year college degree is required to be commissioned as an Army officer,
admission to West Point is not; in fact, in Fiscal Year 2011, only 14.6% of Army officers
were commissioned by attending West Point. See Amicus Br. of Former Military
Officers at 11 (citing Table B‐31: Active Component Commissioned Officer Corps, FY
11, http://prhome.defense.gov/Portals/52/Documents/POPREP/poprep2011/appendixb/
b_31.html (last visited Aug. 29, 2017).
14
24
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page25 of 31
learning environment, one free from sexual discrimination and harassment. See
VMI, 518 U.S. at 532 (recognizing right to equal protection in education,
including at a military educational institution); Hagopian v. Knowlton, 470 F.2d
201, 210 (2d Cir. 1972) (comparing West Pointʹs responsibility for instilling
discipline in cadets ʺto the responsibilities of public school teachers to educate
their studentsʺ).
Second, the ʺfederal system of military death and disability benefitsʺ
established by Congress for injuries sustained by military personnel incident to
service, Taber, 67 F.3d at 1049, apparently is not available to Doe. Indeed, now
that her claims against the United States have been dismissed, it appears that her
Bivens claim is her only means of seeking relief for her injuries. The Government
has not suggested that Doe is eligible for any benefits akin to workersʹ
compensation benefits for injuries arising out of activities within the scope of her
military duties.
Third, the district courtʹs decision to permit Doe to proceed with her
federal constitutional claim does not implicate the Courtʹs concern that a
ʺuniform federal schemeʺ not be displaced by ʺthe contingencies of local tort
law.ʺ Taber, 67 F.3d at 1049. Federal constitutional rights are at stake, and ʺthe
25
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page26 of 31
fortuity of the situs of the alleged [wrongdoing]ʺ will not dictate whether the
individual defendants will be liable. Johnson, 481 U.S. at 688. Rather, Doeʹs equal
protection claim is a federal claim, based on federal constitutional law: the Equal
Protection Clause of the Fifth Amendment.
Moreover, there are federal regulations that also apply here, and
Doe alleges that defendants failed to abide by them. The concern identified in
Feres and its progeny that courts not interfere with military discipline and
structure carries little weight when the military is violating its own rules and
regulations. See Crawford, 531 F.2d at 1120 (noting that ʺ[a] line of cases in our
court holds that actions by the armed services that are violative of their own
regulations are within the reach of the courtsʺ) (collecting cases); Hammond v.
Lenfest, 398 F.2d 705, 715 (2d Cir. 1968) (permitting review of petition for writ of
habeas corpus where naval reservist claimed he was denied discharge by Navy
in violation of its own regulations). Judicial review of Doeʹs allegations that the
individual defendants failed to follow mandatory military directives and
regulations would not unduly interfere with ʺthe proper and efficient operation
of our military forces.ʺ Smith v. Resor, 406 F.2d 141, 146 (2d Cir. 1969).
26
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page27 of 31
The Government cites three cases that have applied the Feres
doctrine to dismiss claims brought by service academy cadets. See Appellantsʹ
Br. at 14 (citing Miller v. United States, 42 F.3d 297, 301 (5th Cir. 1995); Collins v.
United States, 642 F.2d 217, 218 (7th Cir. 1981); Archer v. United States, 217 F.2d
548, 552 (9th Cir. 1954)). These out‐of‐circuit cases, of course, are not controlling,
and they are in any event distinguishable. In Miller, a freshman midshipman at
the Naval Academy was hit in the head by the boom of a sailboat while training
to learn, inter alia, seamanship and the handling of a small vessel. 42 F.3d at 299.
In Collins, an Air Force cadet alleged that he was injured by medical malpractice
on the part of Air Force medical personnel. 642 F.2d at 218. In Archer, a West
Point cadet was aboard a United States Army plane returning to West Point from
a leave. He was being transported as ʺa soldier in military service in line of dutyʺ
and was killed when the plane crashed. His parents brought a wrongful death
action against the United States, alleging negligence in the operation of the plane.
217 F.2d at 549, 551.
These factual scenarios are significantly different from the
circumstances before us now. Injuries resulting from training aboard a Navy
boat or flying on an Army plane or being treated by military doctors clearly are
27
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page28 of 31
injuries incident to service. None of the cases involved a claim for the violation
of constitutional rights, see Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 814 (1982) (damages
suits ʺmay offer the only realistic avenue for vindication of constitutional
guaranteesʺ), and none involved a claim for the deprivation of the opportunity
for an equal education, or a claim of an injury sustained while socializing with a
classmate. Moreover, in all three cases, the armed forces provided disability or
death benefits or other compensation. Miller, 42 F.3d at 299‐300, 306, 307; Collins,
642 F.2d at 221; Archer, 217 F.2d at 550.
Finally, the majority and the Government rely on two recent
decisions of other Circuits rejecting Bivens claims brought by current and former
service members alleging they had been raped and sexually assaulted by other
service members. The plaintiffs in these cases contended that the actions and
omissions of current and former Secretaries of Defense had created a military
culture of tolerance for sexual assault and misconduct. See Klay v. Panetta, 758
F.3d 369, 371‐72 (D.C. Cir. 2014); Cioca v. Rumsfeld, 720 F.3d 505, 513‐14 (4th Cir.
2013). The cases, however, are distinguishable, for they involved active duty
service members who brought broad challenges to policies of high‐ranking
government officials, raising questions as to military discipline and command for
28
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page29 of 31
those in active duty. The cases did not involve students or an educational
institution or the deprivation of meaningful access to an education because of
discriminatory academic policies or school administrators tasked with running
an educational institution. The Feres concerns ‐‐ particularly the question of
interfering with military command and discipline ‐‐ play out very differently in
this scenario.15 As Justice Brennan wrote in Stanley:
In Chappell, the Court did not create an inflexible
rule, requiring a blind application of Feres in soldiersʹ
cases raising constitutional claims. Given the significant
interests protected by Bivens actions, the Court must
consider a constitutional claim in light of the concerns
underlying Feres. If those concerns are not implicated
by a soldierʹs constitutional claim, Feres should not
thoughtlessly be imposed to prevent redress of an
intentional constitutional violation.
483 U.S. at 705 (Brennan, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part, with
Marshall, J., joining, and Stevens, J., joining in relevant part).
15
Klay and Cioca are also distinguishable because they do not employ the
fact‐specific, totality‐of‐circumstances approach our Circuit applied in Taber and Wake.
Instead, they rely primarily on one consideration: military discipline and decision‐
making. See Klay, 758 F.3d at 374‐75; Cioca, 720 F.3d at 512‐15.
29
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page30 of 31
III.
The Feres doctrine has been criticized wide and far, and many have
called for the Supreme Court to reconsider it.16 While we do not, of course, have
the authority to overrule Feres, we should not be extending the doctrine. See
Lombard v. United States, 690 F.2d 215, 233 (D.C. Cir. 1982) (Ginsburg, J.,
concurring in part and dissenting in part) (ʺWhile lower courts are bound by the
Supreme Courtʹs decision in Feres, they are hardly obliged to extend the
limitation . . . .ʺ). By holding that Doeʹs injuries sustained as a cadet incident to
being a student are barred as injuries incident to military service, the majority
does precisely that.
See, e.g., Lanus v. United States, 133 S. Ct. 2731, 2732 (Thomas, J., dissenting
from denial of certiorari) (ʺI would grant the petition to reconsider Feres . . . .ʺ); Ortiz v.
United States, 786 F.3d 817, 818 (10th Cir. 2015) (ʺ[T]he facts here exemplify the
overbreadth (and unfairness) of the doctrine, but Feres is not ours to overrule.ʺ); France
v. United States, 225 F.3d 658, (6th Cir. 2000) (per curiam) (ʺ[M]any courts and
commentators have strongly criticized the Feres decision.ʺ); Day v. Mass. Air. Natʹl
Guard, 167 F.3d 678, 683 (1st Cir. 1999) (ʺPossibly Feres . . . deserves reexamination by
the Supreme Court.ʺ); Bozeman v. United States, 780 F.2d 198, 200 (2d Cir. 1985) (ʺThe
Feres doctrine is a blunt instrument; courts and commentators have often been critical of
it.ʺ); Taber, 67 F.3d at 1044 n.11 (ʺThe fact that the doctrine can be made workable does
not suggest that the Supreme Court ought not abandon the doctrine completely for
reasons akin to those given by Justice Scalia in his Johnson dissent.ʺ); 14 Charles Alan
Wright et al., Federal Practice & Procedure § 3658 (4th ed. 2015) (ʺThe Feres doctrine has
been called ʹmuch‐criticizedʹ and ʹcontroversial.ʹʺ); Erwin Chemerinsky, Federal Courts
Jurisdiction 674 (6th ed. 2012) (noting that many commentators and courts have ʺsharply
criticizedʺ the Feres doctrine for causing ʺmanifest injusticeʺ).
16
30
Case 15-1890, Document 201, 08/30/2017, 2113125, Page31 of 31
I would affirm the district courtʹs determination that the Feres
doctrine does not bar Doeʹs equal protection claim. Accordingly, I dissent.
31
Disclaimer: Justia Dockets & Filings provides public litigation records from the federal appellate and district courts. These filings and docket sheets should not be considered findings of fact or liability, nor do they necessarily reflect the view of Justia.
Why Is My Information Online?