Elias v. Rolling Stone LLC
Filing
AMENDED OPINION, by JAC, RJL, C.JJ., FORREST, D.J., FILED.[2131122] [16-2465]
Case 16-2465, Document 101, 09/22/2017, 2131122, Page1 of 31
16‐2465‐cv
Elias et al. v. Rolling Stone LLC et al.
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UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
AUGUST TERM, 2016
ARGUED: April 27, 2017
AMENDED DECISION: September 22, 2017
No. 16‐2465‐cv
______________________________
GEORGE ELIAS, IV, STEPHEN HADFORD, ROSS FOWLER,
Plaintiffs–Appellants,
v.
ROLLING STONE LLC, SABRINA RUBIN ERDELY, WENNER MEDIA LLC,
Defendants–Appellees.
______________________________
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Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Southern District of New York.
No. 15‐cv‐5953 — P. Kevin Castel, Judge.
______________________________
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Before: CABRANES and LOHIER, Circuit Judges, and FORREST, District Judge.1
______________________________
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Judge Katherine B. Forrest, of the United States District Court for the Southern District
of New York, sitting by designation.
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Plaintiffs‐Appellants George Elias, IV, Stephen Hadford, and Ross Fowler
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appeal from a decision of the United States District Court for the Southern
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District of New York (Castel, J.) dismissing their defamation claims against
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Defendants‐Appellees Rolling Stone, LLC, Sabrina Rubin Erdely, and Wenner
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Media LLC. Plaintiffs’ defamation action arises from a now‐retracted Rolling
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Stone magazine article written by Erdely titled, “A Rape on Campus: A Brutal
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Assault and Struggle for Justice at UVA” (the “Article”) as well as a subsequent
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online podcast appearance by Erdely discussing the Article (the “Podcast”). The
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District Court granted Defendants’ motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim
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in its entirety. The District Court held that Plaintiffs had not sufficiently pled
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that Defendants’ purportedly defamatory statements in the Article and the
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Podcast were “of and concerning” them. Additionally, the District Court held
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that Erdely’s Podcast statements were non‐actionable opinion. We hold that
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Plaintiffs Elias and Fowler have plausibly alleged that the purportedly
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defamatory statements in the Article only were “of and concerning” them
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individually. We also hold that Plaintiffs have plausibly alleged that the Article
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was “of and concerning” them under a theory of small group defamation.
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However, we hold that the District Court correctly determined that Erdely’s
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comments in the Podcast were non‐actionable opinion, and that Plaintiff
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Hadford did not plausibly allege that the statements in the Article were “of and
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concerning” him as an individual apart from his membership in Phi Kappa Psi.
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Accordingly, we AFFIRM in part insofar as the District Court dismissed
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Plaintiffs’ claims regarding the Podcast and Plaintiff Hadford’s individual
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claims, and REVERSE in part insofar as the District Court dismissed Plaintiffs
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Elias’s and Fowler’s individual claims and all Plaintiffs’ claims under a theory of
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small group defamation, and REMAND the cause to the District Court for
9
further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
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Judge Lohier filed a separate opinion concurring in part and dissenting in
part.
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______________________________
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ALAN LEE FRANK, Alan L. Frank Law Associates, P.C.,
Jenkintown, PA, for Plaintiffs‐Appellants.
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ELIZABETH A. MCNAMARA (Samuel M. Bayard, Abigail B.
Everdell, Davis Wright Tremaine LLP, New York, NY; Alison
Schary, Davis Wright Tremaine LLP, Washington, DC, on the
brief), Davis Wright Tremaine LLP, New York, NY, for
Defendants‐Appellees.
______________________________
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FORREST, District Judge:
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George Elias, IV, Stephen Hadford, and Ross Fowler (collectively,
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“Plaintiffs”) appeal from a June 28, 2016 decision of the United States District
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Court for the Southern District of New York (Castel, J.) dismissing their
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defamation claims against Rolling Stone, LLC (“Rolling Stone”), Sabrina Rubin
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Erdely, and Wenner Media LLC (“Wenner Media”) (collectively, “Defendants”).
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Plaintiffs’ defamation action arises from a now‐retracted Rolling Stone magazine
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article written by Erdely titled, “A Rape on Campus: A Brutal Assault and
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Struggle for Justice at UVA” (the “Article”) as well as a subsequent online
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podcast appearance by Erdely discussing the Article (the “Podcast”). The
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Article, first published in the November 19, 2014 online edition of the magazine,
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presented a detailed account of an alleged violent gang rape of a woman named
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“Jackie” by seven male participants and two male onlookers (including a man
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named “Drew”) in a bedroom of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity house at the
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University of Virginia (“UVA”).
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Following widespread national attention to the Article’s allegations, it was
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discovered that “Jackie,” the Article’s main subject as well as Erdely’s principal
17
source, had fabricated the story. In the wake of this discovery, Rolling Stone
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retracted the Article and issued an apology on April 5, 2015.
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On July 29, 2015, Plaintiffs sued Rolling Stone, Erdely, and Wenner Media
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for defamation. Plaintiffs, who were undergraduate students and members of
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the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity at UVA when Jackie’s rape purportedly occurred,
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alleged that the Article and Podcast defamed them by identifying them
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individually as participants in Jackie’s alleged rape and by identifying them
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collectively as members of a group of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity brothers at the
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time the rape allegedly occurred.
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Defendants moved to dismiss Plaintiffs’ complaint for failure to state a
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claim under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6). By Memorandum and
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Order dated June 28, 2016, the District Court granted Defendants’ motion in its
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entirety. The District Court held that Plaintiffs had not sufficiently pled that
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Defendants’ statements were “of and concerning” them, as is necessary to sustain
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a claim for defamation. The District Court found that, as a matter of law, the
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statements were insufficient to be “of and concerning” each Plaintiff individually
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and were also insufficient to support small group defamation. Additionally, the
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District Court held that Erdely’s Podcast statements were not factual assertions,
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but non‐actionable opinion.
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On appeal, we conclude that the District Court properly dismissed
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Plaintiffs’ defamation claim arising from the Podcast. We also find that the
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District Court properly dismissed Plaintiffs’ claims relating to Hadford
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individually. With regard to Elias and Fowler, however, we conclude that the
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complaint plausibly alleged that the statements in the Article were “of and
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concerning” them individually. We further conclude that the complaint
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plausibly alleged that all Plaintiffs were defamed as members of Phi Kappa Psi
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under a theory of small group defamation. Accordingly, we AFFIRM in part
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insofar as the District Court dismissed Plaintiffs’ claims regarding the Podcast
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and Plaintiff Hadford’s individual claims, and REVERSE in part insofar as the
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District Court dismissed Plaintiffs Elias’s and Fowler’s individual claims and all
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Plaintiffs’ claims under a theory of small group defamation, and REMAND the
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cause to the District Court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
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BACKGROUND
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A.
Factual Background
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1.
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The following facts are taken from the complaint and joint appendix and
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are presumed true for the purpose of resolving Defendants’ motion to dismiss.
The Plaintiffs
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Plaintiffs are George Elias IV, Ross Fowler, and Stephen Hadford, three men in
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their mid‐twenties who graduated from UVA in 2013. All were active members
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of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity in the fall of 2012, the relevant timeframe of
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Jackie’s alleged rape described in the Article. As discussed in further detail
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below, Plaintiffs’ relevant individual distinguishing characteristics are as follows:
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Elias lived in the first bedroom at the top of the stairs on the second floor of Phi
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Kappa Psi’s on‐campus fraternity house; Fowler was a previous rush chair for
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the fraternity and an avid swimmer at the university aquatic facility; and
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Hadford frequently rode his bike on campus in the year following his
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graduation. Plaintiffs’ membership in the fraternity and the UVA class of 2013
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was shown and listed on Plaintiffs’ Facebook accounts, Phi Kappa Psi’s website,
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and is common knowledge amongst current and former UVA students. In the
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fall of 2012, there were fifty‐three Phi Kappa Psi members, of whom thirty‐one
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were members of either the class of 2013 or 2014.
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Phi Kappa Psi’s UVA chapter has an on‐campus house in which the
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fraternity hosts events and where certain fraternity members live. During both
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the 2012 and 2013 school years, Plaintiff Elias lived in the Phi Kappa Psi house in
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the first bedroom at the top of the first flight of stairs; according to the complaint,
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this was known to people who knew Elias because, among other reasons, it was
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unusual for Phi Kappa Psi members to live in the on‐campus house for more
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than one year. Elias’s room was the only bedroom in the house on the second
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floor that was not located behind an electronic keypad lock; it was therefore the
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only bedroom on the second floor that was directly accessible from the house’s
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main staircase. According to the complaint, Elias’s room was also one of only
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three rooms on the second floor of the house large enough to hold ten people.
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Like many fraternities, Phi Kappa Psi requires prospective members to
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apply for membership through a pledge process run by a “rush chair.” Fowler
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served as rush chair for the 2010‐2011 academic year, making him responsible for
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the fraternity’s recruitment and initiation processes, and he was also active in the
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rush process during the 2011‐2012 academic year. Fowler was also an avid
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swimmer at UVA; he regularly swam at the university’s aquatic center.
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Plaintiff Hadford was also a member of Phi Kappa Psi who graduated in
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2013. According to Plaintiffs, Hadford wore Phi Kappa Psi shirts almost daily
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prior to the release of the Article. Hadford lived on campus for fifteen months
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after graduating, and he frequently rode his bike across the UVA campus on his
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way to work or social visits.
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2.
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The Article and Podcast
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by Erdely titled, “A Rape on Campus: A Brutal Assault and Struggle for Justice
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at UVA.” According to the complaint, the Article generated worldwide
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headlines, and its online edition received more than 2.7 million views. The main
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subject of the Article was “Jackie,” a woman interviewed by Erdely and who was
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Erdely’s primary source for the piece. The Article recounts a brutal gang rape
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that Jackie claimed she suffered over the course of three hours in a bedroom at
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the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity house at UVA in the fall of 2012.
On November 19, 2014, Rolling Stone published an online article authored
10
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[a] handsome Phi Kappa Psi brother” pseudonymously named “Drew,” a junior
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whom she “met while [they were] working lifeguard shifts together at the
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university pool.” JA‐100 to JA‐101. According to the Article, Drew then invited
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Jackie to an upstairs bedroom, where she was subsequently thrown through a
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glass table and forcibly gang raped by seven men while Drew and a ninth man
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observed. The Article stated that “spectators swigged beers” and the attackers
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“called each other nicknames like Armpit and Blanket.” JA‐101. According to
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the Article, the attackers encouraged one participant to rape Jackie by uttering
The Article opened with Jackie, then a freshman, at a party with “her date,
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statements like “What, she’s not hot enough for you?”; “Don’t you want to be a
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brother?”; and “We all had to do it, so you do, too.” Id. Jackie eventually passed
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out and awoke with her dress “spattered with blood,” at which point she exited
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the house while the party was still underway. Id. The Article explained that
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Drew later thanked Jackie for a “great time” at the party, and the other
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purported attackers likewise behaved toward Jackie as if nothing had ever
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happened. JA‐103.
8
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rape to UVA Dean Nicole Eramo. JA‐105. Dean Eramo is also reported as stating
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in late 2014 that “all the boys involved have graduated.” JA‐108. In addition to
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Jackie’s rape, the Article described a rape that occurred at the Phi Kappa Psi
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house in 1984,2 and asserted that after Jackie shared her account with friends,
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two other female UVA undergraduates contacted her and confided that they, too,
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had recently been Phi Kappa Psi gang‐rape victims.3
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At the end of her freshman year, the Article stated, Jackie first reported the
The occurrence of this 1984 rape is not a matter in dispute in this case.
Interspersed with episodes of Jackie’s story in the Article is Erdely’s presentation of
alleged research on the pervasiveness and normalization of sexual assault on university
campuses in general and at UVA in particular.
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hosted by the online publication Slate. During the Podcast, Erdely stated:
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On November 27, 2014, Erdely was interviewed as a guest on a podcast
I mean I would think that the first thing that they would do is at
least tell her, you know, this needs to go to the police, these are
dangerous people who are hurting people—who are hurting
people—if they hurt you, and you know, and she heard them saying
things during the rape like oh, you know, you have to, you know
egging—keep egging each other on saying things like “Don’t you
wanna be a brother?” which seems to indicate that this is some kind
of initiation ritual.
. . .
I would speculate that life inside of a frat house is a—probably—you
know, you have this kind of communal life where everybody’s sort
of sharing information, it’s a very—it’s a life where, you know,
people are living their lives very closely with one another. And, um,
it seems impossible to imagine that people didn’t know about this,
that some people didn’t know about this, maybe not everybody—it’s
a fairly large fraternity—there’s something like 82 brothers in the
fraternity now, currently in there—But it seems impossible to
imagine that people did not know about it.
JA‐26.
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3.
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Three weeks after the Article’s online publication, on December 5, 2014,
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the Washington Post published an article titled, “Key elements of Rolling Stone’s
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U‐Va. gang rape allegations in doubt.” JA‐27. That same day, Rolling Stone’s
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managing editor issued a public apology on the magazine’s website, stating that
Retraction
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“in the face of new information, there now appear to be discrepancies in Jackie’s
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account, and we have come to the conclusion that our trust in her was
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misplaced.” Id. It soon came to light that Jackie, Erdely’s primary source, had
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fabricated the account of the gang rape and its aftermath, including the
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purported failures by the UVA administration to respond appropriately. On
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April 5, 2015, Rolling Stone officially retracted the Article and issued a written
7
apology “to our readers and to all of those who were damaged by our story and
8
the ensuing fallout, including members of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity and UVA
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administrators and students.” JA‐29.
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B.
Procedural History
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Plaintiffs commenced this action on July 29, 2015, claiming defamation for
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statements made in the online and print editions of the Article and during
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Erdely’s Podcast interview.4 On June 28, 2016, the District Court granted
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Defendants’ motion to dismiss the complaint in its entirety for failure to state a
15
claim. Principally, the District Court’s decision was based on two findings: first,
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that none of the three Plaintiffs had alleged sufficient facts to show that the
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allegedly defamatory statements were “of and concerning” them; and second,
Plaintiffs voluntarily dismissed count four of their complaint alleging negligent
infliction of emotional distress.
4
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that Erdely’s Podcast remarks were non‐actionable opinion. With regard to its
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first finding, the District Court determined that, as a matter of law, the
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statements at issue were insufficient to be “of and concerning” each Plaintiff
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individually and were also insufficient to support small group defamation.
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This appeal followed.
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DISCUSSION
A.
Standard of Review
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We review the grant of a motion to dismiss under Rule 12(b)(6) de novo,
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“construing the complaint liberally, accepting all factual allegations in the
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complaint as true, and drawing all reasonable inferences in the plaintiff’s favor.”
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Chase Grp. Alliance LLC v. City of New York Dep’t of Fin., 620 F.3d 146, 150 (2d Cir.
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2010) (internal quotation marks omitted). “To survive a motion to dismiss, a
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complaint must contain sufficient factual matter, accepted as true, to ‘state a
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claim to relief that is plausible on its face.’” Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678
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(2009) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 570 (2007)). “The
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plausibility standard is not akin to a ‘probability requirement,’ but it asks for
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more than a sheer possibility that a defendant has acted unlawfully. Where a
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complaint pleads facts that are ‘merely consistent with’ a defendant’s liability, it
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‘stops short of the line between possibility and plausibility of entitlement to
2
relief.’” Id. (quoting Twombly, 550 U.S. at 557) (internal citation omitted).
3
B.
Applicable Legal Principles
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The parties agree that New York law applies to this case. In New York,
5
“[d]efamation is ‘the making of a false statement which tends to expose the
6
plaintiff to public contempt, ridicule, aversion or disgrace, or induce an evil
7
opinion of him in the minds of right‐thinking persons, and to deprive him of
8
their friendly intercourse in society.’” Stepanov v. Dow Jones & Co., 987 N.Y.S.2d
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37, 41 (1st Dep’t 2014) (quoting Foster v. Churchill, 87 N.Y.2d 774, 751 (1996)). To
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state a claim for defamation, a complaint must allege “(1) a false statement that is
11
(2) published to a third party (3) without privilege or authorization, and that (4)
12
causes harm, unless the statement is one of the types of publications actionable
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regardless of harm.” Id. at 41‐42.
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In addition, and central to this appeal, a defamation plaintiff must allege
15
that the purportedly defamatory statement was “of and concerning” him or her,
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i.e., that “[t]he reading public acquainted with the parties and the subject” would
17
recognize the plaintiff as a person to whom the statement refers. Carlucci v.
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Poughkeepsie Newspapers, Inc., 57 N.Y.2d 883, 885 (1982); see also New York Times
14
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Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 288‐91 (1964). Whether a plaintiff has satisfied this
2
requirement is typically resolved by the court at the pleading stage. Church of
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Scientology Int’l v. Behar, 238 F.3d 168, 173 (2d Cir. 2001). “‘It is not necessary that
4
the world should understand the libel; it is sufficient if those who know the
5
plaintiff can make out that she is the person meant.’” Geisler v. Petrocelli, 616 F.2d
6
636, 639 (2d Cir. 1980) (quoting Fetler v. Houghton Mifflin Co., 364 F.2d 650, 651
7
(2d Cir. 1966)) (alteration omitted). “[W]here extrinsic facts are relied upon to
8
prove such reference the party alleging defamation must show that it is
9
reasonable to conclude that the publication refers to him or her and the extrinsic
10
facts upon which that conclusion is based were known to those who read or
11
heard the publication.” Chicherchia v. Cleary, 616 N.Y.S.2d 647, 648 (2d Dep’t
12
1994).
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C.
The Article
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On appeal, Plaintiffs argue that they have sufficiently pled that the
15
allegedly defamatory statements in the Article were “of and concerning” them.
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Specifically, Plaintiffs argue, first, that they have plausibly alleged that the
17
defamatory statements in the Article were “of and concerning” them
18
individually, and second, that the statements were directed at all Phi Kappa Psi
15
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members at the time of the alleged rape such that Plaintiffs can maintain a claim
2
for small group defamation.
3
While it is a close call, we conclude on balance that the complaint plausibly
4
alleged that the purportedly defamatory statements in the Article were “of and
5
concerning” Elias and Fowler individually. At this stage of the litigation,
6
Plaintiffs need only plead sufficient facts to make it plausible—not probable or
7
even reasonably likely—that a reader familiar with each Plaintiff would identify
8
him as the subject of the statements at issue. Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 678. With regard
9
to the Article, Elias and Fowler, but not Hadford, have met this burden.
10
We further conclude that the complaint plausibly alleged that all Plaintiffs
11
were defamed as members of Phi Kappa Psi under a theory of small group
12
defamation.
13
1.
14
Elias alleged that the Article was “of and concerning him” individually
15
because during the time of the purported rape, he was both a Phi Kappa Psi
16
brother in the class of 2013 and was known to live in the bedroom at the top of
17
the first flight of stairs in the fraternity house. Brief for Plaintiffs‐Appellants at
18
21. As discussed in the Factual Background, supra, the alleged rape took place on
Elias
16
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the second floor of the fraternity house; the complaint alleged that Elias’s
2
bedroom was one of only three in the Phi Kappa Psi house on the second floor
3
that could fit ten people (the number involved in the alleged gang rape) and was
4
the only bedroom on the second floor accessible by way of the staircase without
5
having to pass through an electronic keypad lock. The complaint also alleged
6
that upon release of the Article, family, friends, acquaintances, coworkers, and
7
reporters easily identified Plaintiff Elias as one of the alleged attackers and,
8
among other things, interrogated him, humiliated him, and scolded him.
9
The decision below found these facts insufficient to plausibly allege that
10
the Article was “of and concerning” Elias. Drawing all inferences in Plaintiffs’
11
favor, we disagree.
12
The District Court based its determination on two observations: first, that
13
there were several bedrooms on the second floor and the Article contained no
14
details distinguishing Elias’s bedroom from the others; and second, that the
15
Article did not mention the presence or absence of a keypad lock. Drawing all
16
reasonable inferences in Plaintiffs’ favor, however, the absence of any mention of
17
a keypad lock is properly construed to support the inference that Drew and
18
Jackie did not encounter such a lock between the stairs and the bedroom.
17
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Considering that Elias was a member of Phi Kappa Psi; he graduated in 2013 (the
2
year that the alleged perpetrators graduated); he lived in the fraternity house in
3
the only bedroom on the second floor that was both large enough to fit the
4
description of the alleged location of the rape and easily accessible by non‐
5
residents; and he was in fact identified by others as one of the alleged attackers,
6
Elias has sufficiently pled that the Article was “of and concerning” him. At this
7
stage of the proceedings, Elias has shown that it is plausible that a reader who
8
knew Elias could identify him based on the allegedly defamatory statements in
9
the Article.
10
2.
11
Fowler alleged that the Article was “of and concerning him” individually
12
because during the time of the purported rape, he was a Phi Kappa Psi brother in
13
the class of 2013, he had a prominent role in initiating new fraternity members,
14
and he regularly swam at the UVA aquatic center. Brief for Plaintiffs‐Appellants
15
at 22‐23. As discussed above, Fowler was the rush chair for Phi Kappa Psi in the
16
2010‐2011 academic year and was active in the rush process during the 2011‐2012
17
academic year. And as Erdely’s Podcast gloss corroborates, the Article described
18
a kind of fraternity initiation ritual, with the alleged attackers egging on one
Fowler
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unaroused participant by stating: “Don’t you want to be a brother?” and “We all
2
had to do it, so you do, too.” JA‐101. The Article also stated that “Drew”
3
worked as a lifeguard and Jackie ran into Drew at the UVA pool.
4
We conclude that based on these facts, Fowler like Elias has plausibly
5
alleged that the Article was “of and concerning” him. Fowler was a member of
6
Phi Kappa Psi who graduated in 2013. And although Fowler was not a lifeguard,
7
he visited the UVA pool regularly, where Jackie was reported to have met Drew
8
and encountered Drew on multiple occasions. In addition, as Fowler argues, the
9
alleged statements by the attackers, “Don’t you want to be a brother?” and “We
10
all had to do it,” can plausibly be interpreted to suggest that Jackie’s gang rape
11
was related to the fraternity’s initiation process, in which Fowler had a
12
prominent role.5 The District Court rejected this interpretation, explaining that
13
the statements “are plausibly read as a boast—a type of perverse puffery.”
14
Again, however, such statements are to be read in the light most favorable to
15
Plaintiffs and the relevant determination is whether Fowler’s proffered
As discussed further below, these statements cannot plausibly be read, however, to
suggest that all Phi Kappa Psi members were required to engage in rape as part of the
fraternity’s initiation process.
5
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interpretation is plausible, not whether other plausible interpretations exist.6
2
Like Elias, Fowler was also actually identified after the Article was published as
3
one of the participants in the alleged gang rape and received harassing texts,
4
emails, and comments from peers, co‐workers, and reporters.
5
6
In short, Fowler has plausibly pled that the Article was “of and
concerning” him.7
7
3.
8
The District Court determined that Hadford failed to plausibly allege that
9
the Article was “of and concerning” him. Hadford’s defamation claim rests
10
primarily on the fact that, in addition to being a Phi Kappa Psi member who
11
graduated in 2013, he rode his bike through campus regularly for fifteen months
Hadford
While Fowler did not allege that he participated in the rush process in the fall of 2012,
when the purported rape occurred, he did allege that he had been active in the rush
process in the two previous academic years. Given the prominence of his role in the
process and the temporal proximity of his involvement to the purported rape, it is
plausible that some readers of the Article concluded that he was involved. See Springer
v. Viking Press, 457 N.Y.S.2d 246, 248‐49 (1st Dep’t 1982), aff’d, 60 N.Y.2d 916 (1983)
(stating that when determining whether a fictitious work is defamatory a court
“search[es] for similarities and dissimilarities”).
6
Neither party has raised on appeal, nor does it appear to have been briefed below,
whether “Drew” can ultimately be “of and concerning” both Plaintiffs Elias and Fowler.
Though this may be a relevant question, we leave it to be addressed in the first instance
by the parties and District Court in the course of discovery, at the summary judgment
stage, or at trial.
7
20
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after graduating. See Brief for Plaintiffs‐Appellants at 22. Like the District Court,
2
we conclude that Hadford’s allegations are too speculative to withstand
3
Defendants’ motion to dismiss.
4
According to the Article, Dean Eramo told Jackie in late‐2014 that “all the
5
boys involved [in the rape] have graduated,” indicating that the attackers
6
graduated in either 2013 or 2014. JA‐108. The Article further states that Jackie
7
was “mystified” by this because she had “just seen one of the boys riding his bike
8
on the grounds.” Id. Hadford argues that because he “lived on campus after
9
graduating and rode his bike around campus,” “[r]eaders aware of those facts
10
would reasonably conclude that Hadford must have been the person who Jackie
11
saw riding his bike on campus.” Brief for Plaintiffs‐Appellants at 22.
12
While Hadford’s interpretation is possible, we conclude that he has not
13
pled sufficient facts to render it plausible that the Article was “of and
14
concerning” him individually. For example, there is no allegation that it is
15
unusual for UVA alumni to bike through campus such that a reasonable reader
16
familiar with Hadford’s biking habits would conclude that the Article plausibly
17
referred to him. The facts alleged with regard to Hadford are “‘merely consistent
21
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1
with’ . . . defendant’s liability,” and are thus insufficient to survive Defendants’
2
motion to dismiss. Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 678 (quoting Twombly, 550 U.S. at 557).
3
4.
4
Plaintiffs argue that regardless of whether they have sufficiently alleged
5
that the Article was “of and concerning” them individually, the Article defamed
6
a small group to which each Plaintiff belongs: “all then‐members of Phi Kappa
7
Psi at UVA.” Brief for Plaintiffs‐Appellants at 15. The District Court rejected this
8
argument, finding that neither the Article nor the Podcast expressly or impliedly
9
stated that all fraternity members committed rape as a condition of initiation or
10
knew that others had committed such a crime. We disagree. Because a reader of
11
the Article could plausibly conclude that each member of Phi Kappa Psi was
12
implicated either directly or indirectly in the alleged rapes, Plaintiffs can proceed
13
under a theory of small group defamation.
Small Group Defamation
14
Under the group libel doctrine, typically “a statement made about an
15
organization is not understood to refer to any of its individual members unless
16
that person is distinguished from other members of the group.” Three Amigos SJL
17
Rest., Inc. v. CBS News Inc., 15 N.Y.S.3d 36, 41 (1st Dep’t 2015), aff’d, 28 N.Y.3d 82
18
(2016). But where a statement defames all members of a small group, the
22
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1
“reference to the individual plaintiff reasonably follows from the statement.”
2
Brady v. Ottaway Newspapers, Inc., 445 N.Y.S.2d 786, 790 (2d Dep’t 1981).
3
Accordingly, “an individual belonging to a small group may maintain an action
4
for individual injury resulting from a defamatory comment about the group, by
5
showing that he is a member of the group.” Id.; see also Algarin v. Town of Wallkill,
6
421 F.3d 137, 139 (2d Cir. 2005); Ball v. Taylor, 416 F.3d 915 (8th Cir. 2005) (per
7
curiam) (finding small group exception applied where statement defamed
8
approximately one‐hundred individuals); 1 Robert D. Sack, Sack on Defamation:
9
Libel, Slander, and Related Problems § 2:9.4, at 2‐163‐64 (5th ed. 2017) (discussing
10
Brady decision).8
11
To evaluate a small group defamation claim, a court considers the size of
12
the group, whether the statement impugns the character of all or only some of
In his partial dissent, Judge Lohier notes that he proposed certification of the issue of
small group defamation to the New York Court of Appeals. Whatever the merits of
certification, we must bear in mind that the process is prolonged and costly to
impecunious plaintiffs. As such, we should be especially reluctant to burden litigants
and courts with the process where, as here, state precedent is adequate to resolve an
issue. See, e.g., Cornejo v. Bell, 592 F.3d 121, 130 (2d Cir. 2010) (“[W]e are bound to apply
the law as interpreted by New York’s intermediate appellate courts unless we find
persuasive evidence that the New York Court of Appeals would reach a different
conclusion.”) (internal alterations and quotation marks omitted)); Commissioner v.
Boschʹs Estate, 387 U.S. 456, 465 (1967) (stating that “an intermediate appellate state
court is a datum for ascertaining state law which is not to be disregarded by a federal
court unless it is convinced by other persuasive data that the highest court of the state
would decide otherwise” (internal quotation marks and alteration omitted)).
8
23
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the group’s members, and “the prominence of the group and its individual
2
members” in the community. Brady, 445 N.Y.S.2d at 794‐95; Algarin, 421 F.3d at
3
139‐40. Weighing these factors, we find that Plaintiffs have pled sufficient facts
4
to establish a prima facie case that the Article contained defamatory statements
5
“of and concerning” all members of the UVA chapter of Phi Kappa Psi at the
6
time the Article was published.
7
As an initial matter, the size of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity at the time of
8
Jackie’s alleged rape does not present an obstacle to small group defamation
9
liability. “The New York Courts have not set a particular group number above
10
which defamation of a group member is not possible.” Anyanwu v. Columbia
11
Broad. Sys., Inc., 887 F. Supp. 690, 693 (S.D.N.Y. 1995). While successful small
12
group defamation claims typically involve groups with twenty‐five or fewer
13
members, see Restatement (Second) of Torts § 564A cmt. b (1977), New York
14
courts have allowed small group defamation claims to go forward where
15
plaintiffs “numbered at least 53,” Brady, 445 N.Y.S.2d at 788. Plaintiffs here
16
allege that there were fifty‐three members of Phi Kappa Psi at the time of Jackie’s
17
alleged rape. We thus agree with the District Court that Phi Kappa Psi is
24
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1
sufficiently small that its members can plausibly claim that the Article’s
2
statements defamed each individual member.
3
However, we disagree with the District Court’s conclusion that the Article
4
did “not expressly or impliedly state that the fraternity required all initiates to
5
participate in a rape, or impute any knowledge of such a requirement to
6
plaintiffs.” The District Court erred by evaluating the Article’s various
7
allegations against Phi Kappa Psi in isolation, rather than considering them in
8
the context of the Article as a whole. See Armstrong v. Simon & Schuster, Inc., 85
9
N.Y.2d 373, 380 (1995) (“[T]he court must give the disputed language a fair
10
reading in the context of the publication as a whole.”); Herbert v. Lando, 781 F.2d
11
298, 307 (2d Cir. 1986) (noting defamation by implication can occur where “[a]
12
combination of individual statements which in themselves may not be
13
defamatory might lead the reader to draw an inference that is damaging to the
14
plaintiff”). Taking the allegations in the Article together, a reader could
15
plausibly conclude that many or all fraternity members participated in alleged
16
gang rape as an initiation ritual and all members knowingly turned a blind eye to
25
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1
the brutal crimes. Indeed, Erdely suggested such an interpretation in her
2
Podcast interview.9
3
Consider first the description of Jackie’s purported rape. Not only did nine
4
men associated with the fraternity participate in the alleged offense, but several
5
made comments—“Don’t you want to be a brother” and “We all had to do it, so
6
you do, too”—implying the event was part of an initiation ritual.
7
Other allegations supported that implication. For example, the Article
8
stated that two other female students reported to Jackie that they had been gang‐
9
raped at the fraternity, suggesting that gang rapes regularly occurred at Phi
10
Kappa Psi. Moreover, the Article described a decades‐long “trail” of sexual
11
violence leading back to the fraternity, including a gang rape committed there in
12
1984. Connecting the dots, a reader could plausibly conclude that Phi Kappa Psi
13
had a long tradition of requiring pledges to participate in gang rapes as a
14
condition of membership.10
As discussed below, we find that Erdely’s Podcast statements were themselves non‐
actionable opinion. Nevertheless, they show that the Article can reasonably be read as
describing a fraternity in which many members committed gang rapes and all members
were aware of the crimes.
9
Judge Lohier, in his partial dissent, makes no mention of these other allegations of
gang rape at Phi Kappa Psi, and instead focuses exclusively on the purported
statements made during Jackie’s alleged rape. To the extent that Judge Lohier believes
10
26
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1
A reader of the Article could also plausibly conclude that, even if all
2
members of Phi Kappa Psi did not commit gang rape, they all knew that their
3
fraternity brothers had. Erdely raised this possibility in the Podcast: “[I]t’s a life
4
where . . . people are living their lives very closely with one another. . . . [I]t
5
seems impossible to imagine that people didn’t know about this.” Cf. Brady, 445
6
N.Y.S.2d at 787 (finding small group defamation where newspaper opined that
7
“’[i]t is inconceivable to us that so much misconduct could have taken place
8
without the guilty knowledge of the unindicted members of the department’”).11
9
Because the Article plausibly implied that all fraternity brothers knew about the
10
alleged rapes, Plaintiffs sufficiently alleged that they were defamed because they
11
were members of the fraternity at the relevant time.
that those statements, taken alone, are insufficient to support a theory of small group
defamation, we agree. But “the court must give the disputed language a fair reading in
the context of the publication as a whole.” Armstrong, 85 N.Y.2d at 380. Here, that
involves reading the statements in the context of the Article’s other allegations of gang
rape at Phi Kappa Psi.
Judge Lohier ignores the nature of the crimes alleged in the Article when he asserts
that, under our decision, “individuals who live or work in close proximity may be
defamed with ‘guilty knowledge’ whenever one in their midst is falsely accused of
misconduct.” Partial Dissent at 5‐6. It bears repeating: the Article alleged that no fewer
than three gang rapes occurred at Phi Kappa Psi at or around the time Jackie was a
student. Gang rape is not only a heinous crime, it is a heinous crime committed by
multiple assailants. Given the gravity and number of individuals allegedly involved in
the offenses, it would indeed be “impossible to imagine” that people did not know
about them had they actually occurred.
11
27
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Finally, we conclude that the size of the university community and the
2
prominence of Phi Kappa Psi on campus support Plaintiffs’ theory of small
3
group defamation. Under New York law, a plaintiff is more likely to succeed
4
under a theory of small group defamation in small communities where
5
individual members are readily associated with the defamed group. See Brady,
6
445 N.Y.S.2d at 795. University campuses are often intimate communities
7
“’where people know each other,’” id., and Plaintiffs all alleged numerous
8
instances in which they were identified and harassed on account of their
9
membership in Phi Kappa Psi. As such, the prominence of Phi Kappa Psi on the
10
UVA campus also supports allowing Plaintiffs to proceed under a theory of
11
small group defamation.
12
13
In short, we conclude that Plaintiffs have plausibly alleged that the Article
was “of and concerning” them under a theory of small group defamation.12
Because we conclude that Plaintiffs can proceed under a theory of small group
defamation based on their membership in the UVA chapter of Phi Kappa Psi, we do not
reach their alternative argument that they were subject to small group defamation as
members who graduated in 2013 by Dean Eramo’s statement that “all the boys involved
have graduated.”
12
28
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1
D.
The Podcast
2
Plaintiffs also appeal the District Court’s dismissal of their defamation
3
claim based on the Podcast. Specifically, Plaintiffs focus on two statements in the
4
Podcast that they assert were defamatory: Erdely’s statement that the Article
5
“seem[ed] to indicate that [Jackie’s rape] is some kind of initiation ritual” and
6
Erdely’s statement that “it seems impossible to imagine that people didn’t know
7
about this . . . .” Brief for Plaintiffs‐Appellants at 15. We agree with the District
8
Court that these comments were entirely speculative and thus non‐actionable
9
Accordingly, Plaintiffs’ claim based on the Podcast was appropriately dismissed.
10
“Under New York law, (with some exceptions) statements that do not
11
purport to convey facts about the plaintiff, but rather express certain kinds of
12
opinions of the speaker, do not constitute defamation.” Sleepy’s LLC v. Select
13
Comfort Wholesale Corp., 779 F.3d 191, 202 (2d Cir. 2015) (emphases in original);
14
see also Gross v. New York Times Co., 82 N.Y.2d 146, 152‐54 (1996). In discerning
15
whether a statement is actionable under New York law, the Court considers a
16
non‐exclusive list of factors that includes: “(1) whether the specific language in
17
issue has a precise meaning which is readily understood; (2) whether the
18
statements are capable of being proven true or false; and (3) whether either the
29
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1
full context of the communication in which the statement appears or the broader
2
social context and surrounding circumstances are such as to signal [to] . . .
3
readers or listeners that what is being read or heard is likely to be opinion, not
4
fact.” Gross, 82 N.Y.2d at 153 (internal quotation marks omitted) (ellipsis in
5
original). In conducting its analysis, the Court “recognize[s] and utilizes[s] the
6
important distinction between a statement of opinion that implies a basis in facts
7
which are not disclosed to the reader or listener and a statement of opinion that
8
is accompanied by a recitation of the facts on which it is based or one that does
9
not imply the existence of undisclosed underlying facts.” Id. (internal citations
10
omitted); see also Celle v. Filipino Reporter Enterprises Inc., 209 F.3d 163, 178 (2d Cir.
11
2000).
12
Although Erdely’s Podcast statements related to matters that could be
13
proven or disproven, her remarks were readily identifiable as speculation and
14
hypothesis. For example, when discussing whether other fraternity members
15
knew about Jackie’s purported rape, she began by saying, “I would speculate
16
that . . .” and later stated “it seems impossible to imagine . . . .” JA‐26. It is true
17
that a statement of fact will not be transformed into a statement of opinion solely
18
by use of language expressing uncertainty or qualification. See Gross, 82 N.Y.2d
30
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1
at 154. Here, however, the Podcast statements clearly represent Erdely’s
2
interpretation of the Article based on the words in the Article and general
3
knowledge about what it was “probably” like to live in a fraternity house; the
4
statements do not imply that Erdely’s view is based on any undisclosed facts. See
5
Levin v. McPhee, 119 F.3d 189, 197 (2d Cir. 1997) (“Though some statements may
6
be characterized as hypothesis or conjecture, they may yet be actionable if they
7
imply that the speaker’s opinion is based on the speaker’s knowledge of facts
8
that are not disclosed to the reader. On the other hand, if a statement of opinion
9
either discloses the facts on which it is based or does not imply the existence of
10
undisclosed facts, the opinion is not actionable.” (internal citations omitted)).
11
CONCLUSION
12
For the aforementioned reasons, the judgment below is AFFIRMED in part
13
insofar as the District Court dismissed Plaintiffs’ claims arising from Erdely’s
14
comments in the Podcast and Plaintiff Hadford’s individual claims, and
15
REVERSED in part insofar as the District Court dismissed Plaintiffs Elias’s and
16
Fowler’s individual claims and all Plaintiffs’ claims under a theory of small
17
group defamation. We REMAND this case for further proceedings consistent
18
with this opinion.
31
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