Hightower et al v. City and County of San Francisco et al
Filing
26
ORDER by Judge Edward M. Chen Granting 15 Defendants' Motion to Dismiss; and Denying 5 Plaintiffs' Motion for a Preliminary Injunction. (emcsec, COURT STAFF) (Filed on 1/29/2013)
1
2
3
4
5
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
6
NORTHERN DISTRICT OF CALIFORNIA
7
8
MITCH HIGHTOWER, et al.,
9
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
No. C-12-5841 EMC
Plaintiffs,
v.
CITY AND COUNTY OF SAN
FRANCISCO, et al.,
ORDER GRANTING DEFENDANTS’
MOTION TO DISMISS, AND DENYING
PLAINTIFFS’ MOTION FOR A
PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION
12
Defendants.
(Docket Nos. 5, 15)
13
___________________________________/
14
15
16
Plaintiffs Mitch Hightower, Oxane “Gypsy” Taub, George Davis, and Russell Mills have
17
filed a class action against Defendants the City and County of San Francisco, two members of the
18
Board of Supervisors (in their official capacities only), and the clerk of the Board of Supervisors (in
19
her official capacity only), alleging that the recent passage of a San Francisco ordinance that bans
20
nudity on, e.g., public streets and sidewalks violates their constitutional rights, in particular, those
21
protected by the First Amendment and equal protection clause. Currently pending before the Court
22
are two motions: (1) Defendants’ motion to dismiss and (2) Plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary
23
injunction.
24
Having considered the parties’ briefs and accompanying submissions, as well as the oral
25
argument of counsel, the Court hereby GRANTS Defendants’ motion to dismiss and DENIES
26
Plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction. As discussed below, the Court concludes that the
27
Ordinance does not conflict with state law, that Plaintiffs’ facial challenge to the Ordinance based on
28
the First Amendment lacks merit because nudity is not inherently expressive and because the
1
Ordinance is not substantially overbroad, and that Plaintiffs’ equal protection claim as pled fails to
2
state a Fourteenth Amendment claim under the rational basis test.
3
I.
FACTUAL & PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
4
At issue in this case is the validity of San Francisco Police Code § 154 which bans nudity on,
5
e.g., public streets and sidewalks. Plaintiffs initiated this lawsuit before the Ordinance was formally
6
adopted. However, since the filing of the lawsuit, the Board of Supervisors adopted the Ordinance,
7
which provides as follows:
8
(a)
The Board of Supervisors finds that a person’s public exposure
of his or her private parts invades the privacy of members of
the public who are unwillingly or unexpected exposed to such
conduct and unreasonably interferes with the rights of all
persons to use and enjoy the public streets, sidewalks, street
medians, parklets, plazas, public rights-of-way, transit
vehicles, stations, platforms, and transit system stops, (2)
creates a public safety hazard by creating distractions,
obstructions, and crowds that interfere with the safety and free
flow of pedestrian and vehicular traffic, and (3) discourages
members of the public from visiting or living in areas where
such conduct occurs. The Board of Supervisors has enacted
the provisions of this Section 154 for the purpose of securing
and promoting the public health, safety, and general welfare of
all persons in the City and County of San Francisco.
(b)
A person may not expose his or her genitals, perineum, or anal
region on any public street, sidewalk, street median, parklet,
plaza, or public right-of-way as defined in Section 2.4.4(t) of
the Public Works Code, or in any transit vehicle, station,
platform, or stop of any government operated transit system in
the City and County of San Francisco.
(c)
The provisions of this chapter shall not apply to (1) any person
under the age of five years or (2) any permitted parade, fair, or
festival held under a City or other government issued permit.
Notwithstanding this exemption, all persons participating in or
attending permitted parades, fairs or festivals shall comply
with Section 1071.1(b)(2) of the San Francisco Police Code.[1]
(d)
Any person who violates this Section 154 shall be guilty of an
infraction and upon conviction thereof such person shall be
punished by a fine not to exceed one hundred dollars ($100)
for a first violation, and not to exceed two hundred dollars
($200) for a second violation within twelve months of the first
violation.
9
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
1
Section 1071.1 governs public nudity in restaurants and public seating areas.
2
1
(e)
Upon the third or subsequent conviction under this Section 154
within twelve months of the first violation, such person shall
be guilty of an infraction or a misdemeanor. The complaint
charging such violation shall specify whether, in the discretion
of the District Attorney, the violation is an infraction or a
misdemeanor. If charged as an infraction, upon conviction, the
violator shall be punished by a fine not to exceed $500. If
charged as a misdemeanor, upon conviction, the violator shall
be punished by a fine not to exceed $500 or by imprisonment
in the County Jail for a period of time not to exceed one year or
by both such fine and imprisonment.
(f)
This Section shall not supersede or otherwise affect existing
laws regulating nudity under the San Francisco Municipal
Code, including but not limited to the Park Code, Police Code,
and Port Code. But in the event of a conflict between this
Section 154 and Police Code 1071.1(b)(2), this Section 154
shall prevail.
(g)
A violation of this Section does not require lewd or sexually
motivated conduct as required under the indecent exposure
provisions of California Penal Code Section 314 or for
purposes of California Penal Code 290(c).
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
12
13
S.F. Police Code § 154.
14
Plaintiffs contend that § 154 violates their constitutional rights as protected by the First
15
Amendment and the equal protection clause. In their complaint, Plaintiffs intimate that the
16
Ordinance should, at the very least, include an exemption for individuals who are nude and whose
17
nudity is combined with and related to political speech. See Compl. ¶ 40 (noting that the
18
“[o]rdinance contains no exclusion for political speech”). Plaintiffs also claim that they are
19
individuals who engage in expressive activity while they are nude. See Compl. ¶¶ 7-10. For
20
example, during a City meeting held in November 2012, members of the public were given an
21
opportunity to express their opinions on the proposed Ordinance, and Ms. Taub made comments in
22
opposition and also disrobed at the same time. See Compl. ¶ 8.
23
In their complaint, Plaintiffs assert the following claims:
24
(1)
That the Ordinance at issue is invalid because it conflicts with state law. See Compl. ¶ 32.
25
(2)
That the Ordinance at issue violates their First Amendment rights because (a) it is overbroad
26
and (b) “impermissibly burdens speech without being tailored to the City’s stated
27
objectives.” Compl. ¶ 36.
28
3
1
(3)
That the Ordinance violates their right to equal protection because (a) it improperly
2
discriminates between two categories of children – those between 0-4 years and those
3
between 5-14 years, see Compl. ¶ 48, and (b) it improperly discriminates between persons
4
who are nude at a permitted event and those who are nude in a public place other than at a
5
permitted event. See Compl. ¶ 44.
6
II.
7
DISCUSSION
As noted above, there are two motions currently pending before the Court: (1) Defendants’
motions have significant overlap. This is because, in order for Plaintiffs to prevail on their motion,
10
they have to establish a likelihood of success on the merits (or at least serious questions going to the
11
For the Northern District of California
motion to dismiss and (2) Plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction. The issues raised in the
9
United States District Court
8
merits), and Defendants’ motion to dismiss goes directly to the merits of Plaintiffs’ case.2 If
12
Defendants are successful on their motion to dismiss, then Plaintiffs’ motion for preliminary
13
injunction must be denied as moot. Accordingly, the Court first addresses Defendants’ motion.
14
A.
Defendants’ Motion to Dismiss
15
1.
16
Under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), a party may move to dismiss based on the
Legal Standard
17
failure to state a claim upon which relief may be granted. See Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(6). A motion to
18
dismiss based on Rule 12(b)(6) challenges the legal sufficiency of the claims alleged. See Parks
19
Sch. of Bus. v. Symington, 51 F.3d 1480, 1484 (9th Cir. 1995). In considering such a motion, a court
20
must take all allegations of material fact as true and construe them in the light most favorable to the
21
nonmoving party, although “conclusory allegations of law and unwarranted inferences are
22
insufficient to avoid a Rule 12(b)(6) dismissal.” Cousins v. Lockyer, 568 F.3d 1063, 1067 (9th Cir.
23
2009). While “a complaint need not contain detailed factual allegations . . . it must plead ‘enough
24
facts to state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.’” Id. “A claim has facial plausibility when
25
the plaintiff pleads factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that the
26
defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged.” Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. 1937, 1949 (2009); see
27
2
28
Because of the significant overlap, the Court does not agree with Plaintiffs that it was
improper for Defendants to make the motion to dismiss.
4
1
also Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 556 (2007). “The plausibility standard is not akin to
2
a ‘probability requirement,’ but it asks for more than sheer possibility that a defendant acted
3
unlawfully.” Iqbal, 129 S. Ct. at 1949.
4
In their opposition, Plaintiffs suggest that Defendants’ motion is not really a 12(b)(6) motion
5
because Defendants are asking the Court to take judicial notice of facts that may not be judicially
6
noticed – more specifically, a transcript of the November 5, 2012, special meeting of the City
7
Operations & Neighborhood Services Committee. See Defs.’ RJN, Ex. D (transcript). Contrary to
8
Plaintiffs’ argument, Federal Rule of Evidence 201 does not bar the Court from considering the
9
transcript. As Plaintiffs note, Federal Rule of Evidence 201 does provide that the “rule governs
judicial notice of an adjudicative fact only, not a legislative fact.”3 Fed. R. Evid. 201(a). But, Rule
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
201 does not bar a court from taking notice of a legislative fact. “It simply means that notice of
12
‘legislative facts’ is left unregulated by Rule 201.” Wright, et al., Fed. Prac. & Proc. § 5103.2. The
13
Wright treatise goes on to explain that “[f]ederal courts have [in fact] judicially noticed various
14
‘legislative facts.’ Such facts are noticed when construing or applying the Constitution. Federal
15
courts also notice ‘legislative facts’ when construing statutes, including determining the validity of
16
administrative regulations.” Id. The transcript in question is part of the legislative history of the
17
challenged Ordinance and is subject to judicial notice. See, e.g., Territory of Alaska v. American
18
Can. Co., 358 U.S. 224, 226-27 (1959) (taking judicial notice of the legislative history of a bill);
19
Anderson v. Holder, 673 F.3d 1089, 1094 n.1 (9th Cir. 2012) (stating that “[l]egislative history is
20
properly a subject of judicial notice”).
21
2.
22
Plaintiffs argue first that the Court need not entertain their constitutional challenge to the
Conflict with State Law
23
Ordinance at issue because the Court can invalidate the Ordinance on an independent ground – i.e.,
24
because § 154 conflicts with state law. See Cal. Const., Art. XI, § 7 (providing that “[a] county or
25
city may make and enforce within its limits all local, police, sanitary, and other ordinances and
26
3
27
28
The advisory committee notes reflect that “[a]djudicative facts are simply the facts of the
particular case” while “[l]egislative facts . . . are those which have relevance to legal reasoning and
the lawmaking process, whether in the formulation of a legal principle or ruling by a judge or court
or in the enactment of a legislative body.” Fed. R. Evid. 201, advisory committee notes.
5
1
regulations not in conflict with general laws”); Cal. Gov’t Code § 37100 (providing that “[t]he
2
legislative body may pass ordinances not in conflict with the Constitution and laws of the State or
3
the United States”); O’Connell v. City of Stockton, 41 Cal. 4th 1061, 1067 (2007) (noting that if
4
local legislation conflicts with state law, then that local legislation is preempted and is void; adding
5
that there is a conflict if the local legislation duplicates, contradicts, or enters into an area fully
6
occupied by general law, either expressly or by legislative implication). The state law on which
7
Plaintiffs rely is California Penal Code § 314, as interpreted by the California Supreme Court in In
8
re Smith, 7 Cal. 3d 362 (1972). In Smith, the California Supreme Court held that a man who had
9
been sunbathing nude on a public beach had not violated § 314. The Court noted that § 314
prohibits a person from lewdly exposing his person or private parts in a public place, and “[a] person
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
does not expose his private parts ‘lewdly’ within the meaning of section 314 unless his conduct is
12
sexually motivated.” Id. at 366. The Court continued: “The necessary proof of sexual motivation
13
was not and could not have been made in the case at bar [because] [i]t is settled that mere nudity
14
does not constitute a form of sexual ‘activity.’” Id.
15
Plaintiffs’ assertion that Penal Code § 314 disables local governments such as the City and
16
County of San Francisco from enacting a law banning nudity (even if not lewd) is without merit. As
17
Defendants note, a state appellate court has already rejected the argument that an ordinance that bans
18
public nudity is preempted because it conflicts with § 314, as interpreted by the California Supreme
19
Court in Smith. See Eckl v. Davis, 51 Cal. App. 3d 831 (1975). The court in Eckl explained as
20
follows:
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Smith is a determination that nudity, in and of itself, is not within the
proscription of Penal Code section 314. However, the fact that the
Legislature has undertaken to proscribe sexually motivated public
nudity – conduct as to which stringent control by legislation is
obviously necessary – does not mean that the Legislature has thereby
impliedly determined that public nudity not so motivated, including
sunbathing int eh nude on public beaches, is lawful and, therefore, not
subject to local regulation. Rather, the reasonable conclusion is that
the Legislature intended to reach the serious problem of sexually
motivated public nudity and to leave the matter of the control of public
nudity not so motivated to the commonly accepted concept of social
propriety and to local legislative bodies if particular circumstances call
for appropriate action.
28
6
1
Id. at 842 (emphasis added). The Court finds Eckl’s reasoning persuasive. Absent any contrary
2
state appellate authority, this Court concludes that there is no conflict between the Ordinance and
3
state law. Because there is no conflict, the Court must address Plaintiffs’ constitutional claims, i.e.,
4
that the Ordinance at issue violates their First Amendment and equal protection rights.
5
6
7
3.
First Amendment
a.
Facial Challenge
As a preliminary matter, the Court finds that, at this juncture in the proceedings, Plaintiffs
maintain that they are making both kinds of challenges, they essentially argue that the Ordinance is
10
per se unconstitutional – that the Ordinance is unconstitutionality in all contexts where public nudity
11
For the Northern District of California
have asserted only a facial challenge to § 154, and not an as-applied challenge. Although Plaintiffs
9
United States District Court
8
is banned thereby. Their complaint does not allege any specific circumstance in which the ban has
12
been applied which raises specific and particular constitutional issues.
13
In fact, it is clear that the Ordinance has not actually been applied against any individual
14
because it is not due to go into effect until February 1, 2013. Nor are there any allegations in the
15
complaint, nor is there otherwise any evidence, that the City has threatened to apply the Ordinance
16
to any person in a particular circumstance.
17
At the hearing, Plaintiffs argued that, since passage of the Ordinance, nudists have been
18
treated more harshly – e.g., at the December 4, 2012, hearing of the Board of Supervisors and during
19
the SantaCon festivities in the downtown area. But Plaintiffs have not demonstrated that in either
20
instance was the Ordinance being enforced, particularly since it does not go into effect under
21
February 1, 2013. Plaintiffs conceded as much at the hearing.
22
Finally, although Plaintiffs have identified in their complaint nudist activities that they have
23
previously engaged in, they have failed to identify with any specificity (including in their complaint)
24
what nudist activities they wish to engage in now or in the imminent future that fall within the scope
25
of § 154, once it is effective. As the Ninth Circuit has indicated, a court should “decline[] to
26
entertain [an] as-applied challenge[] that would require [it] to speculate as to prospective facts.”
27
Hoye v. City of Oakland, 653 F.3d 835, 859 (9th Cir. 2011). This is particularly true where an as-
28
7
1
applied challenge is likely to be subject to a context sensitive inquiry under United States v.
2
O’Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968), discussed below.
3
4
b.
Expression
Defendants argue that, under Ninth Circuit precedent, the Court should dismiss Plaintiffs’
challenged ordinance is directed narrowly and specifically at expression or conduct commonly
7
associated with expression,” Nunez by Nunez v. City of San Diego, 114 F.3d 935, 950 (9th Cir. 1997)
8
(internal quotation marks omitted), and nudity is neither. As an example of an inadequate facial
9
challenge, Defendants point to Roulette v. City of Seattle, 97 F.3d 300 (9th Cir. 1996). There, the
10
Ninth Circuit “upheld a Seattle ordinance prohibiting sitting or lying on the sidewalk in downtown
11
For the Northern District of California
facial challenge to § 154 because “[a] facial challenge must fail unless, at a minimum, the
6
United States District Court
5
and in certain neighborhood commercial zones. [The court] reasoned that the ordinance targeted
12
general conduct, not expression. Thus, an overbreadth challenge was inappropriate.” Nunez, 114
13
F.3d at 950. Notably, the Ninth Circuit acknowledged that “sitting can possibly be expressive” but
14
emphasized that that fact was not
15
16
17
18
enough to sustain plaintiffs’ facial challenge to the Seattle ordinance. .
. . [T]he Supreme Court has entertained facial freedom-of-expression
challenges only against statutes that, “by their terms,” sought to
regulate “spoken words,” or patently “expressive or communicative
conduct” such as picketing or handbilling. Seattle’s ordinance does
neither. By its terms, it prohibits only sitting or lying on the sidewalk,
neither of which is integral to, or commonly associated with,
expression.
19
20
21
Roulette, 97 F.3d at 303-04.
Here, in spite of what Plaintiffs argue, nudity in and of itself is not inherently expressive. In
22
City of Erie v. Pap’s A.M., 529 U.S. 277 (2000), a case in which a nude dancing establishment
23
challenged an ordinance banning public nudity, a four-justice plurality of the Supreme Court
24
expressly noted that “[b]eing ‘in a state of nudity’ is not an inherently expressive condition.” Id. at
25
289 (plurality opinion). Justice Souter did not take issue with this proposition. See id. at 310
26
(Souter, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (“agree[ing] with the analytical approach that
27
the plurality employs in deciding this case”). His views on the question were expressed in his earlier
28
concurrence in Barnes v. Glen Theatre, 501 U.S. 560 (1991), where he expressly stated that,
8
1
“[a]lthough [nude] dancing is inherently is inherently expressive, nudity per se is not.” Id. at 581
2
(Souter, J., concurring). While the dissenting opinion of Justices Stevens and Ginsburg would have
3
found the Erie ordinance unconstitutional, their opinion was predicated on the proposition that
4
“nude dancing is a species of expressive conduct that is protected by the First Amendment.” City of
5
Erie, 529 U.S. at 326 (Stevens, J. and Ginsburg, J., dissenting) (emphasis in original). It was not
6
predicated on a finding that nudity divorced from expressive conduct such as dancing is protected
7
under the First Amendment. Thus, not a single justice in City of Erie suggested that public nudity
8
per se is expressive conduct protected by the First Amendment.
Amendment challenge to an Indianan public indecency statute which banned complete nudity in
11
For the Northern District of California
More on point, prior to City of Erie, the Supreme Court in Barnes rejected a First
10
United States District Court
9
public despite its impact upon some expressive activity such as nude dancing which the Court
12
acknowledged had some degree of First Amendment protection. The plurality opinion noted that
13
Indiana “has not banned nude dancing as such, but has proscribed public nudity across the board.”
14
Barnes, 501 U.S. at 566 (plurality opinion). Applying the O’Brien test, the plurality reviewed the
15
lengthy history of legislation banning public indecency and found that the statute “furthers a
16
substantial government interest in protecting order and morality.” Id. at 569. In concurring, Justice
17
Scalia found the statute was “a general law regulating conduct and not specifically directed at
18
expression,” and thus not subject to First Amendment protection at all. Id. at 572 (Scalia, J.,
19
concurring). As noted above, Justice Souter, in concurring, stated that while nude dancing is
20
inherently expressive, nudity per se is not.” Id. at 581 (Souter, J., concurring). Even the dissenting
21
justices in Barnes made a distinction between nude dancing in theaters and nudity “in parks,
22
beaches, hot dog stands, and like public places,” which was proscribed “to protect others from
23
offense.” Barnes, 501 U.S. at 591 (White, J., Marshall, J., Blackmun, J., and Stevens, J., dissenting).
24
Thus, again not a single justice in Barnes suggested that public nudity itself constitutes expressive
25
conduct protected by the First Amendment.
26
Thus, it is not surprising that lower courts have also held that public nudity alone is not
27
expression protected by the First Amendment. See, e.g., South Fla. Free Beaches, Inc. v. Miami,
28
734 F.2d 608, 610 (11th Cir. 1984) (stating that “‘nudity is protected as speech only when combined
9
1
with some mode of expression which itself is entitled to first amendment protection’”); Bush v. City
2
of San Diego, No. 10CV1188-LAB (RBB), 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 57922, at *8 (S.D. Cal. June 11,
3
2010) (noting that “[t]he ordinance merely prohibits public nudity, and by its terms regulates
4
conduct alone”).
5
This conclusion is consistent with the test to determine when conduct is sufficiently
6
expressive as to deserve First Amendment protection. Expressive conduct exists where “an intent to
7
convey a particularized message was present, and [ ] the likelihood was great that the message
8
would be understood by those who viewed it.” Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, 404 (1989), quoting
9
Spence v. Washington, 418 U.S. 405, 410-11 (1974); cf. Dallas v. Stanglin, 490 U.S. 19, 25 (1989)
(noting that “[i]t is possible to find some kernel of expression in almost every activity a person
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
undertakes – for example, walking down the street or meeting one’s friends at a shopping mall – but
12
such a kernel is not sufficient to bring the activity within the protection of the First Amendment”).
13
Even if a person intended to convey a particular message simply by walking in public nude, the
14
likelihood is far from “great that the message would be understood by those who viewed it,” at least
15
absent any other context to suggest that the nudity is intended to convey a particular message.
16
Unlike the burning of a flag (see Johnson 491 U.S. at 397), burning of a draft card (see O’Brien, 391
17
U.S. at 367), or wearing a black armband in protest against the war (see Tinker v. Des Moines Indep.
18
Comm. School Dist., 393 U.S. 503 (1969)), public nudity in and of itself is not commonly associated
19
with expression of a particular message. See Bush v. City of San Diego, No. 10CV1188-LAB
20
(RBB), 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 57922, at *5-6 (S.D. Cal. June 11, 2010) (noting that “nudity, by
21
itself, [does not] communicate an intelligible message such that there [is no] First Amendment right
22
to be naked”; adding that “the link between the [bike] riders’ nudity and their message is . . .
23
attenuated”).
24
///
25
///
26
///
27
///
28
///
10
1
Because nudity in and of itself is not inherently expressive, the Court agrees with Defendants
2
that, under Nunez, Plaintiffs’ facial challenge to the Ordinance which is not narrowly and
3
specifically directed at expression must fail.4 See Nunez, 114 F.3d at 950.
4
5
c.
Overbreadth
Although Nunez suggests the Court may end its inquiry on the merits of a facial challenge at
expressive value and the fact that the Ordinance does not contain an exemption for, e.g., nudity
8
employed in explicitly expressive activity, the Court finds it appropriate to address Plaintiffs’
9
overbreadth argument. “For a statute to be facially invalid on overbreadth grounds, it must be
10
substantially overbroad.” Acosta v. City of Costa Mesa, 694 F.3d 960, 970 (9th Cir. 2012). A
11
For the Northern District of California
this point, given the substantial body of jurisprudence finding nudity in some contexts does have
7
United States District Court
6
statute is substantially overbroad “‘if a substantial number of its applications are unconstitutional,
12
judged in relation to the statute’s plainly legitimate sweep.’” United States v. Perelman, 695 F.3d
13
866, 870 (9th Cir. 2012).
14
In the case at bar, Plaintiffs have failed to make an adequate showing that there is a
15
substantial number of unconstitutional applications, particularly when judged in relation to the
16
Ordinance’s plainly legitimate sweep. Given the Supreme Court’s decisions in City of Erie and
17
Barnes, the Ordinance’s general ban on public nudity for the most part regulates conduct only. In
18
the main therefore, there is no First Amendment problem – i.e., the Ordinance is plainly legitimate.
19
And even though nudity can be expressive in some contexts, Plaintiffs have not established that
20
there are a substantial number of contexts where the conduct constitutes expression5 and in which
21
the application of the Ordinance would be unconstitutional under the O’Brien test.
22
23
24
25
26
27
4
To the extent that Plaintiffs’ bring an additional First Amendment claim on the basis that
the permitting exemption is a prior restraint on speech, that claim also fails because nudity is not
inherently expressive. See Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781, 795 n.5 (1989) (stating that
“[t]he relevant question [in determining whether something is a prior restraint] is whether the
challenged regulation authorizes suppression of speech in advance of its expression”) (emphasis
added).
5
28
See Bush, 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 57922, at *6 (noting that “the link between the [bike]
riders’ nudity and their message is . . . attenuated”).
11
1
The Court notes that, in evaluating Plaintiffs’ claim of substantial overbreadth, it considers
2
the fact that § 154 is not as far reaching as Plaintiffs have suggested. In many respects, the
3
Ordinance is quite limited. For example, the Ordinance basically bans nudity on public streets,
4
plazas, and transit system areas. It does not, like the laws in City of Erie and Barnes, ban nudity in
5
all public places, such as indoor establishments (where there is a consenting audience); nor does it
6
ban nudity on public beaches or parks.6 Also, the Ordinance prohibits exposure of a person’s
7
genitals, perineum, or anal region only. It does not ban exposure of breasts as did the laws in City of
8
Erie and Barnes. Cf. Barnes, 501 U.S. at 587 (Souter, J., concurring) (stating that ordinance’s
9
limitation is minor, as it only prohibited dancers from “[d]ropping the final stitch.”). While the
Ordinance does not contain an explicit exemption for those engaged in expressive matters of serious
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
literary, artistic, scientific or political value as did the Jackson ordinance in J&B Entertainment, Inc.
12
v. City of Jackson, 152 F.3d 362, 365 (5th Cir. 1998), given the narrowness of the San Francisco
13
Ordinance compared to laws upheld in City of Erie and Barnes, the Court concludes Plaintiffs have
14
failed to establish there is a “‘substantial number of applications [which] are unconstitutional,
15
judged in relation to the statute’s plainly legitimate sweep.’” Perelman, 695 F.3d at 870.
16
17
The Court thus concludes that Plaintiffs’ facial challenge also fails under a traditional
overbreadth analysis.
18
19
d.
As-Applied Challenge
Because, as noted above, the Court finds that Plaintiffs have made, at this juncture in the
20
proceedings, a facial challenge only, the Court need not opine any further. However, because
21
dismissal of the complaint is without prejudice to Plaintiffs rasing a ripe as-applied challenge, the
22
Court notes that, unless Plaintiffs can demonstrate that the Ordinance has been enforced selectively
23
in a manner which discriminates on the bases of e.g., of viewpoint, see Hoye, 653 F.3d at 854
24
(noting that an as-applied challenge may be made, even where a law is neutral and constitutional in
25
all fact situations, if it has been enforced selectively in a viewpoint discriminatory way), the O’Brien
26
27
6
28
At the hearing, Defendants explained that there is a separate provision that governs in the
City’s Park Code. That provision is not at issue in this case.
12
1
test – which governs expressive conduct – will apply. See O’Brien, 391 U.S. at 367. Under the
2
O’Brien test,
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
[a] government regulation [of expressive conduct] is sufficiently
justified if it is within the constitutional power of the Government; if it
furthers an important or substantial governmental interest; if the
governmental interest is unrelated to the suppression of free
expression; and if the incidental restriction on alleged First
Amendment freedoms is no greater than is essential to the furtherance
of that interest.
O’Brien, 391 U.S. at 377.
This is consistent with City of Erie, where a plurality of the Supreme Court applied the
O’Brien test. See City of Erie, 529 U.S. at 289, 295 (“clarify[ing] that government restrictions on
public nudity such as the ordinance at issue here should be evaluated under the framework set forth
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
in O’Brien for content-neutral restrictions on symbolic speech”; adding that “there is nothing
12
objectionable about a city passing a general ordinance to ban public nudity (even though such a ban
13
may place incidental burdens on some protected speech)”). Other courts have followed suit. See,
14
e.g., Bush, 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 57922, at *7-8 (applying O’Brien test to an ordinance that banned
15
public nudity); Moore v. City of Berkeley, No. C-98-3579 CW (N.D. Cal.)) (applying O’Brien test to
16
an ordinance that targeted public nudity; noting that “[t]he Ordinance at issue . . . is a general
17
prohibition on public nudity that regulates conduct alone, whether or not that conduct is
18
accompanied by expressive activity”).
19
In their opposition, Plaintiffs argue that the O’Brien test should not apply and that, instead,
20
the Court should automatically apply the stricter test set forth in Johnson, 491 U.S. at 397, because §
21
154 is on its face content-based or “sensitive.” However, the Ordinance on its face is content
22
neutral, because it does not describe the activity it regulates by the content of its message. See
23
Minority TV Project, Inc. v. FCC, 676 F.3d 869, 872-74 (9th Cir. 2012) (stating that “‘whether a
24
statute is content neutral or content based is something that can be determined on the face of it; if the
25
statute describes speech by content, then it is content based’”). The Ordinance applies across the
26
board to all public nudity regardless of the content of the intended message or in fact whether there
27
is any message at all.
28
13
exemption, see, e.g., Docket No. 20 (Reply at 11) (arguing that the ordinance is not content neutral
3
because it allows nude expressive speech at permitted events but not at other times), but that
4
exemption – as a facial matter – is best characterized as a time, manner, and/or place restriction, one
5
that has nothing to do with content. See, e.g., OSU Student Alliance v. Ray, 699 F.3d 1053, 1065
6
(9th Cir. 2012) (in case involving permit, noting that a time, place, and manner regulation must
7
contain adequate standards to guide the official’s decision and render it subject to effective judicial
8
review); Long Beach Area Peace Network v. City of Long Beach, 574 F.3d 1011, 1023 (9th Cir.
9
2009) (noting that reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions on speech are permissible and that
10
such restrictions can include permitting requirements); cf. Barnes, 501 U.S. at 566 (noting similarity
11
For the Northern District of California
Plaintiffs also assert that the Ordinance is content-based because of the Ordinance’s permit
2
United States District Court
1
between time, place and matter test and O’Brien). Nothing suggests that permits are issued on the
12
basis of the content of the applicant’s message.
13
4.
14
The Court now turns to Plaintiffs’ equal protection claim. Section 154 generally bans public
15
nudity in certain areas but creates two exceptions: (1) for children under the age of five years and (2)
16
for persons at any permitted parade, fair, or festival held under a City or other government-issued
17
permit. Based on these exemptions, Plaintiffs bring an equal protection challenge to the Ordinance.
18
More specifically, Plaintiffs contend that the Ordinance violates their right to equal protection
19
because (a) it improperly discriminates between two categories of children – those between 0-4
20
years and those between 5-14 years, see Compl. ¶ 48, and (b) it improperly discriminates between
21
persons who are nude at a permitted event and those who are nude in a public place other than at a
22
permitted event. See Compl. ¶ 44.
23
24
Equal Protection
a.
Age Exemption
Plaintiffs lack standing to challenge the age exemption. None is a child between the age of 5
25
and 14. In their opposition brief, Plaintiffs do little to address this deficiency except to assert that
26
Defendants should be estopped from making the argument because the parties stipulated to deferring
27
a hearing on Plaintiffs’ motion for class certification. See Opp’n at 21. But this is an insufficient
28
basis to make an estoppel argument. Plaintiffs need to have standing in their own right before they
14
1
can make any argument that they are adequate representatives for members of the class or
2
subclasses. See Nelsen v. King County, 895 F.2d 1248, 1249-50 (9th Cir. 1990) (stating that
3
“[s]tanding ‘is a jurisdictional element that must be satisfied prior to class certification’” and that,
4
“[i]f the litigant fails to establish standing, he may not ‘seek relief on behalf of himself or any other
5
member of the class’”).
6
Even if there were not a standing problem, Plaintiffs’ equal protection claim is problematic
7
for an independent reason. Because Plaintiffs’ equal protection claim is not based on a fundamental
8
right (as nudity is not inherently expressive), the age exemption is subjected to only rational review.
9
See Wright v. Incline Vill. Gen. Improvement Dist., 665 F.3d 1128, 1141 (9th Cir. 2011) (stating
that, “‘[i]f the ordinance does not concern a suspect or semi-suspect class or a fundamental right, we
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
apply rational basis review and simply ask whether the ordinance “is rationally-related to a
12
legitimate governmental interest”’”); see also Kimel v. Florida Bd. of Regents, 528 U.S. 62, 83
13
(2000) (noting that “[s]tates may discriminate on the basis of age without offending the Fourteenth
14
Amendment if the age classification in question is rationally related to a legitimate state interest”;
15
also stating that “[t]he rationality commanded by the Equal Protection Clause does not require States
16
to match age distinctions and the legitimate interests they serve with razorlike precision”). As
17
Defendants argue, “treating infants and preschool children differently from others is entirely
18
reasonable for purposes of a public nudity ban. The necessity of diaper-changing alone provides a
19
rational basis for excluding infants and toddlers from a public nudity ban.”7 Mot. at 17. Moreover,
20
the Board of Supervisors could have assumed there is a lesser connotation of sexuality in the nudity
21
of younger children. In any event, nothing in Plaintiffs’ complaint suggests that there is an absence
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
7
Plaintiffs have not demonstrated the age exemption here warrants anything other than the
most deferential level of rational basis review (as opposed to what commentators have characterized
as rational basis “with bite”) wherein so long as “any reasonably conceivable state of facts . . . could
provide a rational basis for the classification,” then Defendants’ actions will be deemed to comport
with equal protection. See SeaRiver Mar. Fin. Holdings, Inc. v. Mineta, 309 F.3d 662, 679 (9th Cir.
2002); see also Heller v. Doe, 509 U.S. 312, 320 (1993) (stating that “[a] State . . . has no obligation
to produce evidence to sustain the rationality of a statutory classification”; that “‘[a] legislative
choice is not subject to courtroom factfinding and may be based on rational speculation unsupported
by evidence or empirical data’”; and that “[a] statute is presumed constitutional, and ‘the burden is
on the one attacking the legislative arrangement to negative every conceivable basis which might
support it’”) (emphasis added).
15
1
of a rational basis for the differential treatment of children under five. See, e.g., Solis v. Fresno
2
Police Dep’t, 1:11-CV-00053 AWI GSA, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 90443, at *22 (E.D. Cal. Aug. 15,
3
2011) (stating that “Plaintiff’s Complaint fails to address an absence of rational basis for Plaintiff’s
4
treatment”); Davis v. NCAA, No. C 11-01207 WHA, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 68034, at *10-11 (N.D.
5
Cal. June 24, 2011) (stating that, “[i]n order for plaintiffs’ federal equal protection claim to survive
6
defendants’ motion, the amended complaint must plead sufficient facts and inferences to make it
7
plausible that Bylaw 14.5.4.2 is not rationally related to any conceivable legitimate purpose” and
8
“[i]t does not”). In fact, Plaintiffs have not even addressed the absence of a rational basis in their
9
opposition brief.
To the extent Plaintiffs argue that the age exemption in the Ordinance should still be held
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
invalid because it conflicts with state law, they are no better off. The state law on which Plaintiffs
12
rely is California Penal Code § 26, which provides in relevant part that “[a]ll persons are capable of
13
committing crimes except [inter alia] [c]hildren under the age of 14, in the absence of clear proof
14
that at the time of committing the act charged against them, they knew its wrongfulness.” Cal. Pen.
15
Code § 26. Section 26 is, in essence, a statutory defense to a crime. See People v. Anderson, 51
16
Cal. 4th 989, 996 (2011) (indicating that § 26 is a “statutory defense”); see also In re Jennings, 34
17
Cal. 4th 254, 276 (2004) (indicating that a defense to a crime may be made based on § 26). But, as
18
Defendants point out, whether a person can assert a particular defense to criminal charges is a
19
different issue from whether they can be charged with a crime in the first instance. Nothing about
20
the Ordinance interferes with a defense under § 26. There is no conflict between the Ordinance and
21
state law. See Mot. at 24-25; see also O’Connell, 41 Cal. 4th at 1068 (explaining that “[a] local
22
ordinance contradicts state law when it is inimical to or cannot be reconciled with state law”)
23
(emphasis in original).
24
25
b.
Exemption for Permitted Event
As for the permit exemption, Plaintiffs’ equal protection challenge also fails. Once again,
26
because no fundamental right is implicated (as nudity is not inherently expressive), rational review
27
applies. And once again, Defendants have offered a rational basis for the distinction – i.e., because
28
nudity at permitted events such as the Pride Parade and Bay-to-Breakers is “generally widely
16
1
publicized, and the public has come to expect public nudity at those events, and thus is not
2
‘unwillingly or unexpectedly exposed’ to nudity at them. Further, permitted events typically involve
3
street closures and other public safety precautions that reduce the risk that nudity will create public
4
safety hazards.” Mot. at 18; see also Barnes, 501 U.S. at 590-91 (White, J., Marshall, J., Blackmun,
5
J., and Stevens, J., dissenting) (stating that “[t]he purpose of forbidding people to appear nude in
6
parks, beaches, hot dog stands, and like public places is to protect others from offense”). The
7
legislative history of the Ordinance contains evidence of the impact of nudity and pedestrian
8
safety/traffic. See generally Defs.’ RJN, Ex. D (transcript of the November 5, 2012, special meeting
9
of the City Operations & Neighborhood Services Committee transcript).
Similar to above, nowhere in their complaint or opposition brief do Plaintiffs make any
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
assertion there is a lack of a rational basis for the permit exception. Rather, in their opposition brief,
12
Plaintiffs make clear that their equal protection claim is predicated on the First Amendment. See
13
Opp’n at 22. The problem for Plaintiffs is that, as discussed above, nudity in and of itself is not
14
inherently expressive.
15
5.
16
For the foregoing reasons, the Court concludes that both Plaintiffs’ First Amendment claim
17
and their equal protection claim should be dismissed. As to the First Amendment claim, the facial
18
challenge is dismissed with prejudice. Plaintiffs have leave to amend, however, to plead an as-
19
applied challenge. Cf. Carrico v. City & County of San Francisco, 656 F.3d 1002, 1006 (9th Cir.
20
2011) (noting that a pre-enforcement challenge may be made in a First Amendment case, although
21
there are certain standing requirements in the pre-enforcement context). As to the equal protection
22
claim, the dismissal is without prejudice, and Plaintiffs have leave to amend consistent with this
23
order.
24
B.
Summary
Plaintiffs’ Motion for Preliminary Injunction
25
Because the Court is dismissing Plaintiffs’ complaint in its entirety, their motion for a
26
preliminary injunction is denied as moot. The denial is without prejudice – i.e., this ruling does not
27
bar Plaintiffs from seeking a preliminary injunction in conjunction with a proper as-applied
28
challenge.
17
1
2
3
4
III.
CONCLUSION
For the foregoing reasons, Defendants’ motion to dismiss is granted in its entirety, and
Plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction is thereby denied as moot.
The Court also notes that, as an administrative matter, it shall terminate Plaintiffs’ motion for
5
class certification because of its decision on the motion to dismiss. This ruling does not bar
6
Plaintiffs from bringing a class claim in an as-applied challenge, if they can, in good faith and
7
consistent with Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 11, do so.
8
Plaintiffs have forty-five (45) days from the date of this order to file an amended complaint.
9
This order disposes of Docket Nos. 5 and 15.
11
For the Northern District of California
United States District Court
10
IT IS SO ORDERED.
12
13
Dated: January 29, 2013
14
_________________________
EDWARD M. CHEN
United States District Judge
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
18
Disclaimer: Justia Dockets & Filings provides public litigation records from the federal appellate and district courts. These filings and docket sheets should not be considered findings of fact or liability, nor do they necessarily reflect the view of Justia.
Why Is My Information Online?