Project Veritas Action Fund v. Conley

Filing 132

Chief Judge Patti B. Saris: MEMORANDUM and ORDER entered. In Martin, the motion for adverse inferences (Dkt. No. 115 ) is ALLOWED IN PART and DENIED IN PART. The plaintiffs' motion for summary judgment (Dkt. No. 121 ) is ALLOWED. The defendants' motion to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction and motions for summary judgment (Dkt. Nos. 110 , 111 , and 116 ) are DENIED.In Project Veritas, the motion to dismiss on ripeness grounds (Dkt. No. 112 ) is DENIED. The motions for summary judgment (Dkt. Nos. 101 , 117 , and 126 ) are ALLOWED IN PART and DENIED IN PART.The Court declares Section 99 unconstitutional insofar as it prohibits audio recording of government officials, including law enforcement officers, performing their duties in public spaces, subject to reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions. The Court will issue a corresponding injunction against the defendants in these actions. The parties shall submit a proposed form of injunction by January 10, 2019. Associated Cases: 1:16-cv-11362-PBS, 1:16-cv-10462-PBS(Geraldino-Karasek, Clarilde)

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UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
DISTRICT OF MASSACHUSETTS
___________________________________
)
K. ERIC MARTIN and RENÉ PÉREZ,
)
)
Plaintiffs,
)
)
Civil Action
v.
)
No. 16-11362-PBS
)
WILLIAM GROSS, in his Official
)
Capacity as Police Commissioner
)
for the City of Boston, and
)
DANIEL F. CONLEY, in his Official )
Capacity as District Attorney for )
Suffolk County,
)
)
Defendants.
)
___________________________________)
___________________________________
)
PROJECT VERITAS ACTION FUND,
)
)
Plaintiff,
)
)
Civil Action
v.
)
No. 16-10462-PBS
)
DANIEL F. CONLEY, in his Official )
Capacity as Suffolk County
)
District Attorney,
)
)
Defendant.
)
___________________________________)
MEMORANDUM AND ORDER
December 10, 2018
Saris, C.J.
INTRODUCTION
These two cases challenge the application of Mass. Gen.
Laws ch. 272, § 99 (“Section 99”) to secret audio recordings in

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Massachusetts.1 Section 99, in relevant part, criminalizes the
willful “interception” of any “communication.” Mass. Gen. Laws
ch. 272, § 99(C)(1). An “interception” occurs when one is able
“to secretly hear, secretly record, or aid another to secretly
hear or secretly record the contents of any wire or oral
communication through the use of any intercepting device”
without the consent of “all parties to such communication.”
Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 272, § 99(B)(4). Thus, the statute does not
apply to open (or non-secret) recording or to video recording
(without audio). See id.; Commonwealth v. Hyde, 750 N.E.2d 963,
964 (Mass. 2001) (holding that Section 99 “strictly prohibits
the secret electronic recording . . . of any oral
communication”).
The plaintiffs in Martin argue that Section 99 violates the
First Amendment insofar as it prohibits the secret audio
recording of police officers performing their duties in public.
The plaintiff in Project Veritas makes a similar, though
broader, argument: that Section 99 violates the First Amendment
insofar as it prohibits the secret audio recording of government
officials performing their duties in public. The parties in each

1

The Court assumes familiarity with its earlier opinions in both
cases. See Project Veritas Action Fund v. Conley, 270 F. Supp. 3d 337
(D. Mass. 2017); Project Veritas Action Fund v. Conley, 244 F. Supp.
3d 256 (D. Mass. 2017); Martin v. Evans, 241 F. Supp. 3d 276 (D. Mass.
2017).

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case also clash over certain ancillary issues that are discussed
in more detail below.
On the core constitutional issue, the Court holds that
secret audio recording of government officials, including law
enforcement officials, performing their duties in public is
protected by the First Amendment, subject only to reasonable
time, place, and manner restrictions. Because Section 99 fails
intermediate scrutiny when applied to such conduct, it is
unconstitutional in those circumstances.
FACTUAL BACKGROUND
The following facts, drawn from the summary judgment record
in each case, are not subject to genuine dispute.
I.

Martin v. Gross
A.

The Parties

The plaintiffs K. Eric Martin and René Pérez are two
private citizens who live in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. The
defendants are Suffolk County District Attorney Daniel Conley
and City of Boston Police Commissioner William Gross. 2
B.

The Plaintiffs’ Secret Recordings

Since 2011, Martin has openly recorded police officers
performing their duties in public at least 26 times; Pérez has
2

In Martin, Commissioner Gross was automatically substituted for
former Commissioner William Evans pursuant to Rule 25(d) of the
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. In both cases, because Conley is no
longer the district attorney, his replacement shall also be
substituted upon notice.

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done so 18 times, often live-streaming his recordings. The
plaintiffs’ recordings of police have included one-on-one
interactions, traffic and pedestrian stops of others, and
protests.3 Between the two of them, the plaintiffs have wanted to
secretly record police officers performing their duties in
public on at least 19 occasions since 2011, but have refrained
from doing so. Both have stated that their desire to record
secretly stems from a fear that doing so openly will endanger
their safety and provoke hostility from officers.
The plaintiffs have not advanced any specific plans or
intentions to surreptitiously record police officers in the
course of this litigation. But Pérez stated that he would not
rule out secretly recording police officers in various sensitive
situations and that he intended to live-stream any secret
recordings he is permitted to make. Neither Martin nor Pérez has
ever been arrested for violating Section 99.
C.

Enforcement of Section 99

Since 2011, the Suffolk County District Attorney’s Office
(“SCDAO”) has opened at least 11 case files that involve a
felony charge under Section 99. These have included Section 99

3

Two specific subsets of Martin’s recordings are the subject of a
motion to draw adverse inferences. These recordings depict
interactions between police officers and citizens (1) in the vicinity
of the Boston Common and (2) inside the Arizona BBQ restaurant in
Roxbury. In his deposition, Martin refused to testify about these
recordings, invoking the Fifth Amendment.

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charges where the person recorded was a police officer
performing her duties in public. During the same period, the
Boston Police Department (“BPD”) has applied for a criminal
complaint on a Section 99 violation against at least nine
individuals for secretly recording police officers performing
their duties in public.4
When asked what governmental interest Section 99 advances,
the district attorney asserted that it protects individuals’
privacy rights -- specifically, the right of citizens and public
officials alike to be on notice of when they are being recorded.
Asked the same question, the police commissioner referred
generally to Section 99, its legislative history, and judicial
decisions interpreting the statute.
D.

Police Training on Section 99

Section 99 is one of several topics on which BPD officers
receive training. The methods of training include training
bulletins, training videos, and in-service training. In all, BPD
recruits receive 50 to 60 hours of criminal law instruction at
the police academy. The instructor teaches from his own
textbook, which touches on many, but not all, crimes under
Massachusetts law. The text includes a segment on Section 99 -one of over 150 sections discussing various criminal law topics.

4

It is unclear on this record whether, or to what extent, the
SCDAO and BPD Section 99 cases overlap.

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BPD officers are also instructed using at least two other
criminal law manuals that similarly include segments on Section
99 among 150 to 200 other criminal laws.
Furthermore, BPD has created a training video and a
training bulletin related to Section 99. Since 2009, BPD has
published 28 training videos; one of them related to Section 99.
In recent years, BPD has disseminated 22 training bulletins. One
of them is related to Section 99, and it has been circulated
three times.
The video tells officers that Section 99 prohibits only
secret recording. It depicts two scenarios of citizens recording
police -- one openly and one in secret -- and instructs officers
that the first is not a violation of Section 99, but the second
is. The video became mandatory viewing for current officers. New
recruits watch it as well.
The bulletin describes two court cases where defendants
were convicted for secretly recording police officers performing
their duties in public, instructing officers that they have a
“right of arrest” whenever they have probable cause to believe
an individual has secretly recorded a conversation. It was first
circulated in November 2010, then again in October 2011, and
most recently in May 2015. The 2011 and 2015 circulations are
the only bulletins since 2011 that have required police
commanders to read the bulletin aloud to their officers at roll
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call. A memo accompanying the 2011 recirculation explicitly
references the First Circuit decision in Glik v. Cunniffe, 655
F.3d 78 (1st Cir. 2011), discussed in more detail below.
E.

Procedural History

The Martin plaintiffs’ claim, brought under 42 U.S.C.
§ 1983, alleged that Section 99 violates the First and
Fourteenth Amendments as applied to the secret recording of
police officers engaged in their duties in public places.
Resolving a motion to dismiss, the Court held that the
plaintiffs had adequately stated a claim that Section 99
violates the First Amendment. The Court also rejected a
challenge to the plaintiffs’ standing, held that the complaint
adequately stated a claim for municipal liability, and held that
Pullman abstention was unwarranted.
The defendants now challenge the claim on the grounds of
standing, ripeness, and municipal liability. The district
attorney also asks the Court to draw adverse inferences against
Martin. The parties have filed cross-motions for summary
judgment on the constitutional claim.
II.

Project Veritas Action Fund v. Conley
A.

The Parties

The plaintiff, Project Veritas Action Fund (“PVA”), is a
nonprofit organization that engages in undercover journalism.
The defendant is the Suffolk County District Attorney.
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B.

PVA’s Secret Recording Practices

PVA has a history of investigating government officials,
candidates for public office, and others through the use of
secret recording. The organization also investigates suspected
fraud, abuse, and corruption. PVA would like to secretly record
government officials in Massachusetts, including when they make
statements in public places while performing their public
duties. PVA has refrained from doing so due to Section 99.
In general, PVA decides to investigate a story based on
considerations like cost, time, level of public interest or
newsworthiness, and the likelihood that it will obtain “candid
information” from sufficiently high-level individuals. Once an
investigation is assigned to a PVA reporter, he or she develops
a “cover story” designed to develop trust with the source. The
“cover story” is “rarely” true, but PVA enhances its
verisimilitude by, for instance, creating fake email or social
media accounts, printing false business cards, or creating a new
business entity. Often the “cover story” involves volunteering
or interning at a target organization, or donating to it. In
other cases, PVA reporters use flattery, sex appeal, or romantic
overtures to appeal to target sources.
PVA reporters use “sophisticated” recording equipment,
including hidden necktie cameras, purse cameras, eyeglass
cameras, and cameras whose lenses are small enough to fit into a
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button or rhinestone. They have made recordings during campaign
staff meetings, within a target’s offices, and while meeting
with representatives of a target organization. They have also
recorded pretextual “dates” with target individuals and
conversations at bars.
PVA’s ultimate product is an edited “video report” that is
released to the public via its website and/or YouTube channel.
The final report leaves out portions of the raw footage. The
record includes several examples of PVA’s final reports and the
raw footage used to create them.
In this case, PVA identifies four specific projects that it
has refrained from conducting on account of Section 99. The
projects involve secretly recording: (1) landlords renting
unsafe apartments to college students; (2) government officials,
including police officers, legislators, or members of the
Massachusetts Office for Refugees and Immigrants, to ascertain
their positions on “sanctuary cities”; (3) “protest management”
activities by both government officials and private individuals
related to Antifa protests; and (4) interactions with Harvard
University officials to research its endowment and use of
federal funds. PVA would like to send its journalists into
Massachusetts to develop leads on these and other stories that
may emerge.

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C.

Procedural History

PVA’s original complaint challenged the constitutionality
of Section 99 facially and as applied to it, targeting the
statute’s prohibition on secret recording in a public place
(Count I) and secret recording of oral communications of
individuals having no reasonable expectation of privacy (Count
II). In March 2017, the Court dismissed PVA’s claims insofar as
they challenged the application of Section 99 to the secret
recording of private conversations, and insofar as they
presented facial and overbreadth challenges to Section 99. See
Project Veritas Action Fund, 244 F. Supp. 3d at 264-66.
Having preserved its appellate rights as to those rulings,
PVA has filed an amended complaint and has narrowed its claim to
challenge only Section 99’s application to the secret recording
of government officials engaged in their duties in public
spaces. The district attorney has moved to dismiss on ripeness
grounds. Both parties seek summary judgment on the
constitutional claim.
LEGAL BACKGROUND
I.

Summary Judgment Standard
A party is entitled to summary judgment when “the movant

shows that there is no genuine dispute as to any material fact
and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.” Fed.
R. Civ. P. 56(a). “[T]he mere existence of some alleged factual
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dispute between the parties will not defeat an otherwise
properly supported motion for summary judgment; the requirement
is that there be no genuine issue of material fact.” Anderson v.
Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 247-48 (1986) (emphases in
original). An issue is genuine “if the evidence is such that a
reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmoving party.”
Id. at 248. A fact is material if it “might affect the outcome
of the suit under the governing law.” Id.
II.

Setting the Scene: Glik and Gericke
The discussion that follows requires an understanding of

two First Circuit decisions: Glik v. Cunniffe, 655 F.3d 78 (1st
Cir. 2011), and Gericke v. Begin, 753 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2014).
In Glik, the plaintiff was arrested for using his cell
phone’s digital video camera to openly film several police
officers arresting someone on the Boston Common. 655 F.3d at 79,
87. He was recording audio as well as video on the cell phone.
Id. at 80. The plaintiff was charged with violating Section 99
and two other state-law offenses. Id. at 79. These charges were
later dismissed. Id. The plaintiff sued the police under 42
U.S.C. § 1983, claiming that his arrest for audio and video
recording of the officers constituted a violation of his rights
under the First and Fourth Amendments. Id. The police officers
raised a qualified immunity defense. Id. A central issue on
appeal was whether the arrest violated the plaintiff’s First
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Amendment rights -- in other words, “is there a constitutionally
protected right to videotape police carrying out their duties in
public?” Id. at 82.
The First Circuit answered affirmatively. Id. It held that
the First Amendment’s protection “encompasses a range of conduct
related to the gathering and dissemination of information.” Id.
The First Amendment prohibits the government “from limiting the
stock of information from which members of the public may draw.”
Id. (quoting First Nat’l Bank v. Bellotti, 435 U.S. 765, 783
(1978)).
The filming of government officials engaged in their
duties in a public place, including police officers
performing their responsibilities, fits comfortably
within these principles. Gathering information about
government officials in a form that can readily be
disseminated to others serves a cardinal First Amendment
interest
in
protecting
and
promoting
“the
free
discussion of governmental affairs.”
Id. (quoting Mills v. Alabama, 384 U.S. 214, 218 (1966)). This
freedom of expression has particular significance with respect
to law enforcement officials, “who are granted substantial
discretion that may be misused to deprive individuals of their
liberties.” Id.
Although the First Circuit did not define “filming,” Glik
involved a cell phone used to record both audio and video. At
least two of the cases cited in Glik involved both audio and
video recording. See Fordyce v. City of Seattle, 55 F.3d 436,

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439 (9th Cir. 1995) (recognizing a “First Amendment right to
film matters of public interest” where plaintiff’s videotaping
of people on the streets of Seattle simultaneously captured
audio); Demarest v. Athol/Orange Cty. Television, Inc., 188 F.
Supp. 2d 82, 94-95 (D. Mass. 2002) (recognizing
“constitutionally protected right to record matters of public
interest” where a reporter was punished for broadcasting video
and audio recordings of communication with government
officials).
The First Circuit acknowledged that the right to record
“may be subject to reasonable time, place, and manner
restrictions.” Id. at 84. But it did not explore those
limitations because the plaintiff’s conduct -- openly recording
both audio and video of police arresting someone on the Boston
Common -- “fell well within the bounds of the Constitution’s
protections.” Id. It also held that the right was “clearly
established,” concluding that “a citizen’s right to film
government officials, including law enforcement officers, in the
discharge of their duties in a public space is a basic, vital,
and well-established liberty safeguarded by the First
Amendment.” Id. at 85.
More recently, in Gericke, a case involving an attempted
open audiovisual recording of a late-night traffic stop, the
First Circuit reiterated an individual’s First Amendment right
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to film police officers performing their duties carried out in
public, subject to reasonable restrictions. 753 F.3d at 7.
Therefore, “a police order that is specifically directed at the
First Amendment right to film police performing their duties in
public may be constitutionally imposed only if the officer can
reasonably conclude that the filming itself is interfering or
about to interfere with his duties.” Id. The First Circuit
repeated the admonition from Glik that police officers “are
expected to endure significant burdens caused by citizens’
exercise of their First Amendment rights.” Id. at 8 (quotation
omitted).
Like Glik, Gericke did not directly address audio
recording. However, it did rely on American Civil Liberties
Union of Illinois v. Alvarez, 679 F.3d 583, 607 (7th Cir. 2012),
for the proposition that the First Amendment right to record may
be subject to reasonable orders to maintain safety and control.
Gericke, 753 F.3d at 7-8. Alvarez itself resonates with this
case because it held that “[t]he act of making an audio or
audiovisual recording is necessarily included within the First
Amendment’s guarantee of speech and press rights as a corollary
of the right to disseminate the resulting recording.” 679 F.3d
at 595. This was due, in part, to the Seventh Circuit’s
observation “that audio and audiovisual recording are uniquely
reliable and powerful methods of preserving and disseminating
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news and information about events that occur in public. Their
self-authenticating character makes it highly unlikely that
other methods could be considered reasonably adequate
substitutes.” Id. at 607.
All of which is to say that the Court interprets Glik as
standing for the proposition that the First Amendment protects
the right to record audio and video of government officials,
including law enforcement officers, performing their duties in
public, subject only to reasonable time, place, and manner
restrictions.
DISCUSSION
I.

Preliminary Issues in Martin v. Gross
Before the paths of these two cases converge again, the

Court must first address three preliminary issues that arise
only in Martin.
A.

Standing

In Martin, the police commissioner first argues that the
plaintiffs lack standing to bring this case because their claims
are speculative, the scope of the right they assert is
amorphous, and their fear of arrest and prosecution is not
caused by Section 99. The commissioner’s line of argument is
essentially identical to the one that the Court addressed, and
rejected, in its prior opinion in this case. See Martin, 241 F.
Supp. 3d at 281-83. There, the Court “easily conclude[d]” that
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the plaintiffs intended to secretly record police if not for
Section 99. Id. at 282. The Court found a credible threat of
prosecution because “Section 99 is alive and well.” Id. at 283.
And the Court found causation and redressability satisfied
because the alleged injury arose from the potential arrest
and/or prosecution of the plaintiffs by BPD or the SCDAO. Id.
The current record only solidifies those conclusions
because now, instead of allegations, the plaintiffs have
provided facts that are not subject to genuine dispute. The
commissioner points to nothing that would change the Court’s
analysis. The plaintiffs still have standing to bring this case.
B.

Municipal Policy
1.

Parties’ Arguments

The police commissioner next argues that merely training
police officers on how to enforce Section 99 is not a municipal
policy for purposes of a § 1983 claim. More pointedly, he argues
that even under the framework of Vives v. City of New York, 524
F.3d 346 (2d Cir. 2008), the record does not demonstrate a
municipal “choice” to enforce Section 99. He also argues that
the plaintiffs’ fear of making secret recordings is caused by
Section 99 itself, not by any municipal policy to enforce
Section 99, and therefore the plaintiffs have failed to show a
causal connection between any municipal policy and their alleged
harm.
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The plaintiffs argue that nothing requires BPD to enforce
Section 99 against individuals who secretly record police.
Therefore, enforcement of the law must be the result of a
conscious policy choice by the city, as evidenced by repeated
efforts to train officers on Section 99. The plaintiffs further
argue that answering the question on the existence of a
municipal policy simultaneously resolves the causation question.
2.

Legal Standard

Local governments (and local officials sued in their
official capacities) can be sued under § 1983 “for monetary,
declaratory, or injunctive relief where . . . the action that is
alleged to be unconstitutional implements or executes a policy
statement, ordinance, regulation, or decision officially adopted
and promulgated by that body’s officers.” Monell v. Dep’t of
Soc. Servs. of City of N.Y., 436 U.S. 658, 690 (1978). “[T]he
word ‘policy’ generally implies a course of action consciously
chosen from among various alternatives.” City of Okla. City v.
Tuttle, 471 U.S. 808, 823 (1985).
3.

Analysis

The parties first dispute the appropriate legal standard
for evaluating the existence of a “policy” for purposes of a
Monell claim -- an issue on which courts have diverged. The
plaintiffs argue that the Court should apply the Second
Circuit’s framework from Vives, as it did at the motion to
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dismiss. Under Vives, the existence of a municipal “policy”
depends on “(1) whether the City had a meaningful choice as to
whether it would enforce [the statute in question]; and (2) if
so, whether the City adopted a discrete policy to enforce [the
statute in question] that represented a conscious choice by a
municipal policymaker.” 524 F.3d at 353. The police commissioner
urges the Court to adopt the Seventh Circuit’s decision in
Surplus Store & Exchange, Inc. v. City of Delphi, which stated:
It is difficult to imagine a municipal policy more
innocuous and constitutionally permissible, and whose
causal connection to the alleged violation is more
attenuated, than the “policy” of enforcing state law.
If the language and standards from Monell are not to
become a dead letter, such a “policy” simply cannot be
sufficient to ground liability against a municipality.
928 F.2d 788, 791–92 (7th Cir. 1991). The First Circuit has not
weighed in on this question, aside from brief dicta in a
concurrence that positively cited Surplus Store. See Yeo v. Town
of Lexington, 131 F.3d 241, 257 (1st Cir. 1997) (Stahl, J.,
concurring).
Surplus Store does not govern here because the record
demonstrates that BPD has done more than merely “enforc[e] state
law.” Rather, BPD has highlighted what it believes Section 99
allows (open recording of police officers) and does not allow
(secret recording of police officers).
To show the existence of a municipal policy, the plaintiffs
rely on an array of BPD training materials that discuss Section
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99, including a video and a training bulletin. The roughly
seven-minute video begins with a summary of the statute. It then
reenacts two scenarios. In the first, a bystander holds up a
cell phone and records police officers interacting with a couple
arguing in the street. The video instructs that this does not
constitute an “interception” under Section 99 because the
bystander is openly, not secretly, recording the interaction.
The second scenario parallels the facts of Commonwealth v. Hyde,
750 N.E.2d 963 (Mass. 2001), in which the SJC affirmed the
Section 99 conviction of a defendant who surreptitiously
recorded his conversation with police during a traffic stop. The
video instructs officers that charges are appropriate in this
scenario, although it emphasizes that, in order to violate
Section 99, the recording “Must be SECRET!”
The bulletin, issued in November 2010, provides Section
99’s definitions of “interception” and “oral communication,” and
breaks down the crime into elements. It also summarizes Hyde and
Commonwealth v. Manzelli, 864 N.E.2d 566 (Mass. App. Ct. 2007),
two Massachusetts appellate cases interpreting Section 99. The
bulletin describes Section 99 as “designed to prohibit secret
recordings of oral communications.” It twice states, “Public and
open recordings are allowed under the Wiretap statute. There is
no right of arrest for public and open recordings under this
statute.”
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The bulletin has been recirculated twice. In October 2011,
the bulletin was accompanied by a memo from the Commissioner
citing the Glik decision. The memo instructs officers that
“public and open recording of police officers by a civilian is
not a violation” of Section 99. The cover memo for the May 2015
recirculation “remind[s] all officers that civilians have a
First Amendment right to publicly and openly record officers
while in the course of their duties.”
Section 99 is discussed in other training materials as
well. For instance, the Municipal Police Training Committee, a
state agency that sets minimum training standards for police
academies in Massachusetts, discusses Section 99 in at least two
training manuals used by the BPD. The record includes four
additional manuals or texts that appear to discuss the statute
as well.
These materials -- particularly the video and bulletin -demonstrate why Surplus Store is inapt here. They instruct
officers that Section 99 permits open, but not secret, recording
of police officers’ actions. But Glik did not clearly restrict
itself to open recording. Rather, it held that the First
Amendment provides a “right to film government officials or
matters of public interest in public space.” Glik, 655 F.3d at
84–85. The right is “fundamental and virtually self-evident,”
subject only to reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions.
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Id. The BPD training materials narrowly read this holding, which
amounts to more than mere enforcement of state law.
The same considerations demonstrate the existence of a
policy under the two-prong Vives test. The parties do not
dispute the first prong. That is, they seem to agree -correctly -- that local police have discretion about whether and
when to enforce Section 99. The second prong asks whether BPD
has adopted a “discrete policy” to enforce Section 99 that
“represent[s] a conscious choice by a municipal policymaker.”
Vives, 524 F.3d at 353. The police commissioner does not dispute
that these training materials exist and have been disseminated
to BPD personnel. Because there is no genuine dispute as to this
factual basis for the alleged municipal policy, the only
remaining question is one of law, appropriate for resolution on
summary judgment: Do these training materials evince a
“conscious choice” by BPD to enforce Section 99?
The answer is yes. Although an individual police officer
retains discretion about whether to arrest someone for violating
Section 99, the training materials cited above make clear that
BPD “put flesh on the bones” of Section 99 and “apparently
instructed officers that they could make arrests” for what the
plaintiffs now claim was constitutionally protected conduct.
Vives, 524 F.3d at 356. The video, bulletin, and manuals all
speak with one voice regarding when Section 99 is and is not
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violated. The Court concludes, as a matter of law, that this
evidence demonstrates a “conscious choice” and amounts to a
municipal policy for purposes of a Monell claim.
The police commissioner protests that BPD’s guidance was in
accordance with, and pursuant to, cases interpreting Section 99,
and it is unfair to subject BPD to liability for trying to
ensure that its officers comply with the law. He also argues
that finding a municipal policy here will create “a perverse
incentive not to train police officers.” But the training
materials go beyond telling officers when it is impermissible to
arrest; taking a narrow construction of Glik, they also
communicate that it is permissible to arrest for secretly audiorecording the police under all circumstances. In other words, it
gives the green light to arrests that, as the Court holds below,
are barred by Glik.
As the plaintiffs predicted, this analysis also resolves
the causation question. “Where a plaintiff claims that a
particular municipal action itself violates federal law, or
directs an employee to do so, resolving these issues of fault
and causation is straightforward.” Bd. of Cty. Comm’rs of Bryan
Cty. v. Brown, 520 U.S. 397, 404 (1997). Here, the commissioner
acknowledges that BPD’s training materials were intended to
ensure that officers complied with Glik. But Glik did not
distinguish between First Amendment protection applicable to
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audio and video recording. BPD’s policymakers interpreted (in
the Court’s view, misinterpreted) the case as permitting arrest
for secret audio recording in all circumstances without regard
for the First Amendment interest at stake of police performing
their duties in public. BPD’s policies narrowly interpreting
Glik caused the injury complained of in this case.
Accordingly, the Court concludes that the plaintiffs have
proven the existence of a municipal policy and causation for
purposes of their Monell claim against the police commissioner.
C.

Adverse Inferences
1.

Parties’ Arguments

The district attorney argues that, for purposes of summary
judgment, the Court should draw adverse inferences against
Martin based on his refusal to answer certain questions during
his deposition by invoking his Fifth Amendment privilege. The
motion concerns two sets of videos produced in discovery: one
from the Boston Common and one from the Arizona BBQ restaurant
in Roxbury. The district attorney argues that he is prejudiced
by Martin’s assertion of the privilege because it prevents him
from learning details about these videos, such as whether Martin
created them, whether the recorder was holding the recording
device in plain view, and whether the recorder had the subjects’
permission to record. As a consequence, the district attorney
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for instance, that Martin did create them, that the recording
device was not held in plain view, and that Martin did not have
permission to record from persons in the videos.
Martin opposes the motion only in two respects. First, he
seeks to ensure that none of the adverse inferences can be used
in any criminal proceeding. Second, he opposes one specific
inference -- that the Arizona BBQ restaurant is a “public place”
for purposes of the plaintiffs’ requested relief on their
constitutional claim. He argues that this inference is outside
the scope of his assertion of the Fifth Amendment privilege.
2.

Legal Standard

In general, “‘the Fifth Amendment does not forbid adverse
inferences against parties in civil actions when they refuse to
testify,’ . . . nor does it mandate such inferences, especially
as regards topics unrelated to the issues they refused to
testify about.” Mulero-Rodriguez v. Ponte, Inc., 98 F.3d 670,
678 (1st Cir. 1996) (quoting Baxter v. Palmigiano, 425 U.S. 308,
318 (1976)). Moreover, the First Circuit has “expressed doubt as
to whether a court can draw [such an adverse] inference at the
summary judgment stage, where all reasonable inferences must be
drawn for the non-movant.” In re Marrama, 445 F.3d 518, 522–23
(1st Cir. 2006).

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3.

Analysis

Because Martin opposes the inferences only in part, the
Court generally allows the district attorney’s motion. This
comes with two caveats. First, as both parties seem to agree,
the Court draws these inferences solely for the purpose of
summary judgment in this case. Second, the Court agrees with
Martin that the requested inference about the Arizona BBQ
restaurant is outside the scope of his invocation of the Fifth
Amendment privilege. That is, whether the Arizona BBQ restaurant
constitutes a “public place” is a legal determination that
likely would turn on facts outside the scope of any testimony
Martin would offer on the topic. The district attorney’s motion,
therefore, is allowed in part and denied in part.
II.

Ripeness
A.

Parties’ Arguments

In both cases, the district attorney moves to dismiss for
lack of jurisdiction on the grounds that the case is unripe for
judicial review. He argues that the plaintiffs’ claims turn upon
a host of fact-dependent considerations, but the plaintiffs have
yet to develop a sufficient record to enable the Court to
evaluate them.
The plaintiffs in Martin contend primarily that their
claims do not turn on the factual considerations that the
district attorney identifies. Even if they did, the plaintiffs
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argue that they have provided plenty of facts to decide their
respective cases. The plaintiff in Project Veritas argues that
its history of secret recording activity in other states amply
supports its intent to engage in the same conduct in
Massachusetts and that this satisfies ripeness.
B.

Legal Standard

Ripeness is an aspect of justiciability rooted in both the
Article III case-or-controversy requirement and in prudential
considerations. Reddy v. Foster, 845 F.3d 493, 500 (1st Cir.
2017). Its purpose is “to prevent the adjudication of claims
relating to ‘contingent future events that may not occur as
anticipated, or indeed may not occur at all.’” Id. (quoting
Texas v. United States, 523 U.S. 296, 300 (1998)). As such,
“plaintiffs bear the burden of alleging facts sufficient to
demonstrate ripeness.” Id. at 501. “Even a facial challenge to a
statute is constitutionally unripe until a plaintiff can show
that federal court adjudication would redress some sort of
imminent injury that he or she faces.” Id.
In general, the ripeness analysis has two prongs: fitness
and hardship. Id. The fitness prong has both jurisdictional and
prudential components. Id. The jurisdictional component of
fitness asks “whether there is a sufficiently live case or
controversy, at the time of the proceedings, to create
jurisdiction in the federal courts.” Id. (quoting Roman Catholic
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Bishop of Springfield v. City of Springfield, 724 F.3d 78, 89
(1st Cir. 2013)). The prudential component of fitness concerns
“whether resolution of the dispute should be postponed in the
name of judicial restraint from unnecessary decision of
constitutional issues.” Id. (quoting Roman Catholic Bishop, 724
F.3d at 89). The hardship prong is not disputed here.
In the context of a First Amendment challenge like this
one, Supreme Court and First Circuit precedent describes two
types of cognizable injury. The first is when the plaintiff has
alleged an intention to engage in a course of conduct arguably
affected with a constitutional interest, but proscribed by the
statute, and there exists a credible threat of prosecution.
Mangual v. Rotger-Sabat, 317 F.3d 45, 56–57 (1st Cir. 2003). The
second is when a plaintiff is chilled from exercising her right
to free expression or forgoes expression in order to avoid
enforcement consequences. Id. at 57.
C.

Analysis: Martin

The plaintiffs in Martin satisfy both aspects of fitness
(the only ingredients of ripeness at issue here). The First
Circuit has recognized that, “though not unqualified, a
citizen’s right to film government officials, including law
enforcement officers, in the discharge of their duties in a
public space is a basic, vital, and well-established liberty
safeguarded by the First Amendment.” Glik, 655 F.3d at 85. Both
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plaintiffs have attested to their prior recordings of police
officers. The plaintiffs aver that they desire to secretly
record police officers but have refrained from doing so because
of Section 99. And the defendants have sought criminal
complaints or charged persons for violating Section 99 numerous
times since 2011. In this case and its companion, the government
has not disavowed enforcement of Section 99. See Project Veritas
Action Fund, 270 F. Supp. 3d at 342; Martin, 241 F. Supp. 3d at
283.
These facts give rise to a live controversy over genuine
First Amendment injuries. Therefore, both the jurisdictional and
prudential components of fitness are satisfied. That is, the
plaintiffs have shown “a sufficiently live case or controversy
. . . to create jurisdiction in the federal courts,” while also
satisfying the Court that resolution of the case need not
(indeed, ought not) be postponed. Reddy, 845 F.3d at 501
(quoting Roman Catholic Bishop, 724 F.3d at 89). This conclusion
is bolstered by the principle that “courts sometimes exhibit a
greater willingness to decide cases that turn on legal issues
not likely to be significantly affected by further factual
development.” Ernst & Young v. Depositors Econ. Prot. Corp., 45
F.3d 530, 536 (1st Cir. 1995). Such is the case here.
Many of the district attorney’s arguments about an
underdeveloped factual record seem to relate to his concern that
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secret recordings could somehow endanger police officers or the
public. This concern is not directly relevant to the issue of
fitness. Moreover, nothing in Glik or in the relief sought by
these plaintiffs would prohibit an officer from taking
reasonable steps to preserve public safety. See Glik, 655 F.3d
at 84 (noting that right to record “may be subject to reasonable
time, place, and manner restrictions”); cf. Gericke, 753 F.3d at
8 (“[A]n individual’s exercise of her First Amendment right to
film police activity carried out in public . . . necessarily
remains unfettered unless and until a reasonable restriction is
imposed or in place.”); Alvarez, 679 F.3d at 607 (noting that
First Amendment right to record does not prevent officers from
“tak[ing] all reasonable steps to maintain safety and control,
secure crime scenes and accident sites, and protect the
integrity and confidentiality of investigations”).
D.

Analysis: Project Veritas

The undisputed facts in Project Veritas show a live
controversy over, at a minimum, whether the plaintiff has been
“chilled from exercising [its] right to free expression or [has]
forgo[ne] expression in order to avoid enforcement
consequences.” Mangual, 317 F.3d at 57. It is beyond dispute
that PVA has used secret audiovisual recording in the past. This
has included secret audiovisual recording of government
officials, such as New Hampshire voting officials during the
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2016 primaries, and of private citizens, such as those depicted
in PVA’s recordings during the August 2017 protests in
Charlottesville, Virginia. Further, according to PVA, Glik
extends to secret recording, and therefore Section 99 chills
them from engaging in protected conduct. The district attorney
disagrees that the right recognized in Glik covers secret audio
recording. The Court needs no additional facts to resolve that
legal dispute. See Ernst & Young, 45 F.3d at 536 (describing how
courts often “exhibit a greater willingness to decide cases that
turn on legal issues not likely to be significantly affected by
further factual development”).
The district attorney further emphasizes deposition
testimony where PVA’s designated witness, when asked whether PVA
had any present intentions of secretly recording in
Massachusetts, stated:
Not in Massachusetts, no, that would be against the
law. We can’t do that. I would love to probably
secretly record a whole bunch of people because that’s
what I do. I think it is a very important and valuable
kind of journalism. We don’t have any plans to because
we can’t. It’s against the law, and we don’t break the
law.
The district attorney is correct that this testimony undercuts a
specific threat-of-prosecution injury, since the witness
admitted not having a current “intention to engage in a course
of conduct arguably affected with a constitutional interest.”
Mangual, 317 F.3d at 56. But by the same token, this testimony
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is unmistakable evidence that Section 99 has “chilled [PVA] from
exercising [its] right to free expression” and that PVA is
“forgo[ing] expression in order to avoid enforcement
consequences.” Id. at 57.
The district attorney also asserts that ripeness requires
additional details about PVA’s foregone investigations. But for
many of the same reasons just discussed with respect to Martin,
the First Circuit has not indicated that the right to record is
as fact-bound as the district attorney suggests. In addition,
waiting for additional details to develop on a case-by-case
basis could exacerbate the “pull toward self-censorship” that
First Amendment pre-enforcement review is supposed to avoid. See
N.H. Right to Life Political Action Comm. v. Gardner, 99 F.3d 8,
13–14 (1st Cir. 1996).
That said, the four investigations that PVA proposes are
described with such sparse detail that they could encompass a
vast array of settings and subjects for secret recording. The
breadth of potential conduct involved, none of which has
actually occurred, creates serious ripeness concerns. See Texas
v. United States, 523 U.S. at 300; Babbitt v. United Farm
Workers Nat’l Union, 442 U.S. 289, 298 (1979). On this score,
PVA has narrowed the scope of its summary judgment motion to
only those applications of Section 99 that involve the recording

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of government officials performing their duties in public. 5
Significantly, PVA’s challenge remains broader than the one in
Martin, which challenges the statute only with respect to the
secret recording of police officers. But with respect to Project
Veritas, the Court’s ensuing analysis will focus solely on PVA’s
“government officials” claim. That claim is ripe to the extent
just discussed, and the motion to dismiss is denied.
III. First Amendment Challenge
On the core constitutional question, the parties contest
three issues: (1) whether to treat the plaintiffs’ claims as
“facial” or “as applied” challenges; (2) whether Section 99 is
subject to strict scrutiny, intermediate scrutiny, or rational
basis review; and (3) whether Section 99 survives whatever level
of constitutional scrutiny governs. The Court addresses each of
those issues before turning to a few loose ends.
A.

“Facial” or “As Applied” Challenge

The parties dispute whether the plaintiffs’ First Amendment
claims are “as applied” or “facial” in nature. As sometimes

5

In part, this was in recognition of the fact that the Court has
already dismissed PVA’s claims insofar as they pertain to private
individuals. See Project Veritas Action Fund, 244 F. Supp. 3d at 265
(holding that Section 99 survives intermediate scrutiny insofar as it
permits only non-secret recording of private conversations). Although
PVA continues to advance some of those arguments (e.g., by now arguing
that Section 99 is unconstitutionally overbroad and is
unconstitutional whenever the subject of a recording lacks a
reasonable expectation of privacy), the Court has already rejected
them.

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occurs, the claims in these cases “obviously [have]
characteristics of both.” John Doe No. 1 v. Reed, 561 U.S. 186,
194 (2010). They are “as applied” in the sense that the
plaintiffs only challenge Section 99 insofar as it applies to
the secret recording of police officers (in Martin) or
government officials (in Project Veritas) performing their
duties in public. They are “facial” in the sense that the relief
sought in both cases would block the application of Section 99
to any situation involving the secret recording of police
officers or government officials performing their duties in
public, not just in a specific instance of the plaintiffs
engaging in such conduct.
The Supreme Court faced a similar situation in Reed and
instructed that “[t]he label is not what matters.” 561 U.S. at
194. Rather, the point of inquiry is whether the claim and the
relief that would follow “reach beyond the particular
circumstances of [the] plaintiffs” in the case. Id. If so, the
plaintiffs must satisfy the “standards for a facial challenge to
the extent of that reach.” Id.; see also Showtime Entm’t, LLC v.
Town of Mendon, 769 F.3d 61, 70 (1st Cir. 2014) (applying Reed
to hold that a strip club’s challenge to a town’s zoning laws
was facial because the club sought to invalidate the zoning
laws, not merely to change the way those laws applied to the
club).
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Here, there is no genuine dispute that the relief the
plaintiffs seek in both cases “reach[es] beyond [their]
particular circumstances.” Reed, 561 U.S. at 194. Specifically,
the plaintiffs all seek to partially invalidate Section 99.
Thus, under Reed, their claim is facial to a certain extent.
However, there are only two “set[s] of circumstances” at issue:
the secret recording of police officers performing their duties
in public, and the secret recording of government officials
doing the same. That is the limited “extent” of the facial
challenges in these cases. See id.
B.

Level of Constitutional Scrutiny

The parties also dispute the appropriate level of
constitutional scrutiny. PVA argues that Section 99 is a
content-based restriction on expression because it primarily
injures undercover journalists, and therefore strict scrutiny
should apply. This argument is easily dispatched. A contentbased restriction is one that “applies to particular speech
because of the topic discussed or the idea or message
expressed.” Reed v. Town of Gilbert, 135 S. Ct. 2218, 2227
(2015) (emphasis added). Section 99 does not do this. Rather, in
the scenarios at issue here -- the secret recording of police
officers or other government officials performing their duties
in public -- Section 99 acts as a content-neutral restriction on
conduct that, under Glik, is protected by the First Amendment
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(for citizens and journalists alike). See Jean v. Mass. State
Police, 492 F.3d 24, 29 (1st Cir. 2007) (noting that Section 99
“is a content-neutral law of general applicability” (internal
quotation marks omitted)). Thus, intermediate scrutiny applies.
See Rideout v. Gardner, 838 F.3d 65, 71-72 (1st Cir. 2016)
(“Content-neutral restrictions are subject to intermediate
scrutiny . . . .”), cert. denied, 137 S. Ct. 1435 (2017). The
plaintiffs in Martin agree that this standard governs here.
Finally, the district attorney suggests in a footnote that
a standard lower than intermediate scrutiny “might” apply. He
does not convincingly develop this argument, and neither Glik
nor Jean supports it. See 655 F.3d at 82-84; 492 F.3d at 29.
C.

Intermediate Scrutiny

Intermediate scrutiny requires that the law be “narrowly
tailored to serve a significant government interest.” Rideout,
838 F.3d at 72 (quoting Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S.
781, 791 (1989)). In this context, narrow tailoring does not
require that the law be the least restrictive or least intrusive
means of serving the government’s interests. Id. However, it
requires a “close fit between ends and means” and dictates that
the government “may not regulate expression in such a manner
that a substantial portion of the burden on speech does not
serve to advance its goals.” McCullen v. Coakley, 134 S. Ct.
2518, 2534-35 (2014). The law also must “leave open ample
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alternative channels for communication of the information.”
Ward, 491 U.S. at 791.
The defendants state that the purpose of Section 99 is to
ensure that all citizens -- government officials and private
citizens alike -- receive “guaranteed notice of being recorded,
so that one can respond appropriately.” The defendants describe
this as a privacy interest of both the government officials and
the private individuals with whom they interact. 6
The argument that Section 99 protects privacy interests is
consistent with case law from the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial
Court, which has stated that Section 99 “was designed to
prohibit the use of electronic surveillance devices by private
individuals because of the serious threat they pose to the
‘privacy of all citizens.’” Hyde, 750 N.E.2d at 967–68 (quoting
Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 272, § 99). Generally speaking, protection
of individual privacy is a legitimate and significant government
interest. See Bartnicki v. Vopper, 532 U.S. 514, 532 (2001)
(“Privacy of communication is an important interest . . . .”);

6

The district attorney also suggests that this interest falls
within the First Amendment’s protection against compelled
participation in the expressive conduct of another. In other words, if
notice of recording permits a person to modulate her behavior to
account for the recording, a lack of notice forces the person to
unknowingly participate in the expressive conduct (here, recording) of
another. Conley cites no case that applies this “compelled
participation” line of First Amendment jurisprudence in a right-torecord dispute, and the First Circuit has not done so in its recent
explorations of the topic (i.e., Gericke and Glik).

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cf. Frisby v. Schultz, 487 U.S. 474, 484 (1988) (recognizing
protection of residential privacy as a “significant government
interest” for purposes of First Amendment claim).
The Martin plaintiffs contend that allowing police officers
to “respond appropriately” to notice of recording will permit
them to alter any inappropriate behavior. They point to the
important First Amendment interest in monitoring the conduct of
law enforcement officials. In Glik, the First Circuit recognized
the First Amendment’s protection for information-gathering has
special force with respect to law enforcement officials who are
granted so much discretion in depriving individuals of their
liberties. See 655 F.3d at 83. But the same basic interest
applies generally to government officials: “Ensuring the
public’s right to gather information about their officials not
only aids in the uncovering of abuses, but also may have a
salutary effect on the functioning of government more
generally.” Glik, 655 F.3d at 82-83 (citations omitted).
The Court holds that Section 99 is not narrowly tailored to
protect a significant government interest when applied to law
enforcement officials discharging their duties in a public
place. See id. at 84 (“In our society, police officers are
expected to endure significant burdens caused by citizens’
exercise of their First Amendment rights.”). The same goes for
other government officials performing their duties in public.
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Id. at 82-83, 85; see Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323,
344 (1974) (“An individual who decides to seek governmental
office must accept certain necessary consequences of that
involvement in public affairs. He runs the risk of closer public
scrutiny than might otherwise be the case. And society’s
interest in the officers of government is not strictly limited
to the formal discharge of official duties.”).
This is not to say that police and government officials
have no privacy interests. However, the diminished privacy
interests of government officials performing their duties in
public must be balanced by the First Amendment interest in
newsgathering and information-dissemination. The First Amendment
prohibits the “government from limiting the stock of information
from which members of the public may draw.” Bellotti, 435 U.S.
at 783. “An important corollary to this interest in protecting
the stock of public information is that ‘[t]here is an undoubted
right to gather news from any source by means within the law.’”
Glik, 655 F.3d at 82 (quoting Houchins v. KQED, Inc., 438 U.S.
1, 11 (1978)) (internal quotation marks omitted).
The First Circuit has recognized that “[t]he filming of
government officials engaged in their duties in a public place,
including police officers performing their responsibilities,
fits comfortably within these principles.” Id.; see also
Alvarez, 679 F.3d at 595 (recognizing audio and audiovisual
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recording as among forms of information-gathering protected by
First Amendment). Based on this case law, the Court holds that
the First Amendment protects both audio and video recording.
Because “the public’s right of access to information is
coextensive with that of the press,” this right inures to
individual citizens and journalists alike. Glik, 655 F.3d at 83.
The right “may be subject to reasonable time, place, and manner
restrictions,” although Glik does not discuss what those
restrictions might entail. Id. at 84.
Here, the defendants counter with several hypotheticals
that might implicate individual privacy or public safety issues
-- for instance, when an officer meets with a confidential
informant or encounters a crime victim on the street. But these
examples miss the mark. When such situations arise, police are
free to “take all reasonable steps to maintain safety and
control, secure crime scenes and accident sites, and protect the
integrity and confidentiality of investigations.” Alvarez, 679
F.3d at 607; see also Glik, 655 F.3d at 84 (“[T]he right to film
. . . may be subject to reasonable time, place, and manner
restrictions.”). Nothing in the relief these plaintiffs seek
would require otherwise. If an officer needs to protect the
safety of an informant or her fellow officers, or seeks to
preserve conversational privacy with a victim, the officer may
order the recording to stop or to conduct the conversation at a
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safe remove from bystanders or in a private (i.e., non-public)
setting. See Alvarez, 679 F.3d at 607. (“Police discussions
about matters of national and local security do not take place
in public where bystanders are within earshot . . . .”). A
reasonable restriction would remove the conversation from the
scope of the relief sought (and ordered) in this case.
In short, Section 99 prohibits all secret audio recording
of any encounter with a law enforcement official or any other
government official. It applies regardless of whether the
official being recorded has a significant privacy interest and
regardless of whether there is any First Amendment interest in
gathering the information in question. “[B]y legislating this
broadly -- by making it a crime to audio record any
conversation, even those that are not in fact private -- the
State has severed the link between [Section 99’s] means and its
end.” Alvarez, 679 F.3d at 606. The lack of a “close fit”
between means and end is plain. See McCullen, 134 S. Ct. at
2534-35.
Further, “[b]ecause [Section 99] is not closely tailored to
the government’s interest in protecting conversational privacy,
[the Court] need[s] not decide whether it leaves open adequate
alternative channels for this kind of speech.” Alvarez, 679 F.3d
at 607. Even if it reached that issue, however, the “selfauthenticating character” of audio recording “makes it highly
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unlikely that other methods could be considered reasonably
adequate substitutes.” Id.
D.

Loose Ends

Some difficult questions remain about what constitutes a
“public space” and who is considered a “government official” for
purposes of the right to record. The facts of Glik provide some
guidance on the “public space” issue. There, the recording took
place on the Boston Common, “the apotheosis of a public forum”
in which “the rights of the state to limit the exercise of First
Amendment activity are ‘sharply circumscribed.’” Glik, 655 F.3d
at 84 (quoting Perry Educ. Ass’n v. Perry Local Educators’
Ass’n, 460 U.S. 37, 45 (1983)). Many of the police-involved
scenarios that the plaintiffs desire to secretly record would
occur in similar locations -- traditional public forums like
parks, streets, and sidewalks. See Minn. Voters All. v. Mansky,
138 S. Ct. 1876, 1885 (2018) (describing framework for
traditional public forums, designated public forums, and
nonpublic forums); Gericke, 753 F.3d at 7 (extending the right
to record to traffic stops). It seems clear enough from Glik and
Gericke that the right to record a government official,
including a law enforcement official, performing her duties
generally applies in public forums.
But the holding of Glik uses the phrase “public space,” not
“public forum.” 655 F.3d at 85. The plaintiffs in Martin believe
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the right to secretly record the police extends to private
property that is open to the general public, such as a
restaurant. For example, one of Martin’s recordings of police
activity occurred at the Arizona BBQ restaurant from a vantage
point on the sidewalk outside the restaurant. In general,
though, the First Amendment does not guarantee a right to free
expression on private property. See Hudgens v. NLRB, 424 U.S.
507, 520–21 (1976) (holding that federal constitution did not
protect employees’ right to picket inside shopping center).
Moreover, there is a definitional issue with Glik’s use of
the term “government official.” Glik, Gericke, and cases cited
therein teach that a police officer falls within the ambit of
“government official.” But who are these other government
officials? The First Amendment doctrine surrounding “public
officials” may provide some guidance. See, e.g., Mangual, 317
F.3d at 65-66 (describing how definition of “public official”
has evolved to “include[] many government employees, including
police officers”).
The parties did not focus on defining “public space” or
“government official,” and it is not prudential, under the
ripeness doctrine, to do so now. While Glik’s use of the term
“public space” seems to indicate something broader than “public
forum,” and its use of the term “government official” includes a
broader scope of public official than “law enforcement officer,”
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the Court leaves it to subsequent cases to define these terms on
a better record.
CONCLUSION
Consistent with the language of Glik, the Court holds that
Section 99 may not constitutionally prohibit the secret audio
recording of government officials, including law enforcement
officials, performing their duties in public spaces, subject to
reasonable time, manner, and place restrictions.
ORDER
In Martin, the motion for adverse inferences (Dkt. No. 115)
is ALLOWED IN PART and DENIED IN PART. The plaintiffs’ motion
for summary judgment (Dkt. No. 121) is ALLOWED. The defendants’
motion to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction and motions for
summary judgment (Dkt. Nos. 110, 111, and 116) are DENIED.
In Project Veritas, the motion to dismiss on ripeness
grounds (Dkt. No. 112) is DENIED. The motions for summary
judgment (Dkt. Nos. 101, 117, and 126) are ALLOWED IN PART and
DENIED IN PART.
The Court declares Section 99 unconstitutional insofar as
it prohibits audio recording of government officials, including
law enforcement officers, performing their duties in public
spaces, subject to reasonable time, place, and manner
restrictions. The Court will issue a corresponding injunction

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Case 1:16-cv-10462-PBS Document 132 Filed 12/10/18 Page 44 of 44

against the defendants in these actions. The parties shall
submit a proposed form of injunction by January 10, 2019.

/s/ PATTI B. SARIS
Patti B. Saris
Chief United States District Judge

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