Sanchez v. United States of America
Filing
20
PROPOSED FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDED DISPOSITION by Magistrate Judge Gregory B. Wormuth recommending denial of 1 Motion to Vacate/Set Aside/Correct Sentence (2255 under Johnson v. USA). Objections to R&R due by 7/19/2017. Add 3 days to the deadline if service is by mailing it to the person's last known address (or means described in Fed. R. Civ. P. 5(b)(2)(D) and (F)); if service is by electronic means, no additional days are added. (Fed. R. Civ. P. 6(d); Fed. R. Crim. P. 45(c).) (km)
IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF NEW MEXICO
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Plaintiff,
v.
No. 16‐CV‐00659‐JAP‐GBW
No. 13‐CR‐00961‐JAP
ARTHUR SANCHEZ,
Defendant.
PROPOSED FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDED DISPOSITION
This matter is before the Court on Defendant’s Motion to Vacate, Set Aside, or
Correct Sentence under 28 U.S.C. § 2255. Doc. 1.1 Defendant seeks to have his
conviction and sentence set aside pursuant to the Supreme Court’s decision in Johnson v.
United States, which struck down the residual clause of the Armed Career Criminal Act
(ACCA) as unconstitutionally vague under the Fifth Amendment Due Process Clause.
135 S. Ct. 2551 (2015). See generally doc. 1. Having reviewed the initial and
supplemental briefing on Defendant’s motion (docs. 10, 14, 17, 19) and the record before
the Court, I recommend denying the Motion.
I.
BACKGROUND
On December 17, 2013, Defendant pled guilty to the offenses of possession of
heroin with intent to distribute in violation of 21 U.S.C. § § 841(a)(1) and (b)(1)(C) and
Citations to “doc.” refer to docket numbers filed in Case No. 16‐CV‐659‐JAP/GBW. Citations to “cr. doc.”
refer to the attendant criminal docket, Case No. 13‐CR‐961‐JAP. For filings made on both dockets, only
the civil docket number is given.
1
being a felon in possession of a firearm and ammunition in violation of 18 U.S.C. §
922(g)(1) and § 924(a)(2). Cr. docs. 30, 31, 32. Defendant’s plea agreement, entered
pursuant to Rule 11(c)(1)(C) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, included a
binding stipulation to a term of 180 months (fifteen years) of imprisonment and three
years of supervised release. Cr. doc. 32 at 1, 4.
Prior to Defendant’s sentencing, the United States Probation Office prepared a
presentence report (PSR) which concluded that Defendant had at least three prior
“violent felony” convictions. PSR ¶ 57. Consequently, he qualified as an armed career
criminal under the ACCA. See PSR ¶¶ 57, 71. The ACCA provides that a defendant
convicted of being a felon in possession of a firearm faces a minimum term of fifteen
years’ imprisonment where he has three or more previous convictions for a “violent
felony.” 18 U.S.C. § 924(e)(2)(B); see also Logan v. United States, 552 U.S. 23, 27 (2007). At
the time of Defendant’s sentencing, the ACCA defined “violent felony” as any crime
punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year that:
(i)
(ii)
has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use
of physical force against the person of another; or
is burglary, arson, or extortion, involves use of explosives, or
otherwise involves conduct that presents a serious potential risk of
physical injury to another[.]
18 U.S.C. § 924(e)(2)(B) (emphasis added). The italicized portion is known as “the
residual clause” of the ACCA, which the Supreme Court struck down as
unconstitutional under the void‐for‐vagueness doctrine in its Johnson decision. See 135
2
S. Ct. at 2557‐61.2
Defendant’s past convictions that were classified in the PSR as “violent felonies”
justifying his designation as an armed career criminal under 18 U.S.C. § 924(e) include:
(1) Aggravated Assault with a Deadly Weapon; (2) Robbery; and (3) Aggravated Battery
with a Deadly Weapon. PSR ¶ 57. Defendant knew that he would be classified as an
armed career criminal prior to entering into the plea agreement which stipulated a term
of imprisonment of 180 months. See cr. doc. 50 at 4‐5. At the time of his sentencing,
Defendant did not dispute any of the PSR findings. See id. at 2.
Due to Defendant’s classification as an armed career criminal and Defendant’s
use of a firearm in connection with a controlled substance offense, the PSR assigned a
base offense level of 34. PSR ¶ 57; U.S.S.G. § 4B1.4(b)(3)(A).3 After the application of a
reduction for acceptance of responsibility, Defendant’s base offense level was 31. PSR ¶
58. With a criminal history category of VI and an offense level of 31, Defendant’s
guideline range was 188 to 235 months. PSR ¶ 115. However, the Court imposed the
sentence to which the parties stipulated in the plea agreement of imprisonment for 180
The Supreme Court has instructed that its Johnson decision is retroactively applicable to cases on
collateral review. Welch v. United States, 136 S. Ct. 1257, 1265 (2016). Because Defendant filed his § 2255
petition within one year of the Supreme Court’s decision in Johnson, it is properly before the Court to
decide whether Johnson applies to—and justifies vacating—Defendant’s sentence, which was enhanced
under the ACCA. See Dodd v. United States, 545 U.S. 353, 357 (2005).
3
Defendant was also classified as a career offender under the guidelines due to having at least two prior
felony convictions of “crimes of violence.” PSR ¶ 57; see also U.S.S.G. § 4B1.1. The ACCA enhancement
was applied rather than the career offender enhancement because the ACCA offense level of 34 was
greater than the career offender offense level of 32. PSR ¶ 57; U.S.S.G. § 4B1.4(b)(3)(A). Had the career
offender enhancement been applied rather than the ACCA enhancement, the applicable advisory
sentencing guideline range would have been 151‐188 months, after adjusting for acceptance of
responsibility. See U.S.S.G. SENTENCING TABLE (2013).
2
3
months followed by three years of supervised release. Cr. doc. 32 at 4; cr. doc. 50 at 4, 6‐
7.
II.
LEGAL STANDARD
Whether the underlying criminal convictions of Defendant’s ACCA
enhancement qualify as “violent felonies” depends on whether they satisfy the
definition of “violent felony” under the remaining clauses of the ACCA, now that the
residual clause has been struck down as unconstitutional. See 18 U.S.C. § 924(e)(2)(B).
In making its determination, the Court should consider the offense “generically, that is
to say, . . . in terms of how the law defines the offense and not in terms of how an
individual offender might have committed it on a particular occasion.” Begay v. United
States, 553 U.S. 137, 141 (2008). This “categorical approach” requires the Court to
“consult only the fact of conviction and the statutory definition of the prior offense, and
[] not generally consider the particular facts disclosed by the record of conviction.”
United States v. Ramon Silva, 608 F.3d 663, 669 (10th Cir. 2010) (internal quotations
omitted); see also Mathis v. United States, 136 S. Ct. 2243, 2248 (2016).
The Supreme Court explained in Johnson v. United States, 559 U.S. 133, 140 (2010)4
that the term “physical force” as used in the ACCA “means violent force—that is, force
capable of causing physical pain or injury to another person.” Nonetheless, the force
required to satisfy that element need not be sufficient to cause serious injury—it “might
To avoid confusion, this case will be referred to as Johnson I to distinguish it from the 2015 Johnson
opinion striking down the residual clause of the ACCA (hereinafter referred to as Johnson II).
4
4
consist . . . of only that degree of force necessary to inflict pain—a slap in the face, for
example.” Id. at 1272. Therefore, in evaluating whether Defendant’s past convictions
under New Mexico law constitute violent felonies under the ACCA, the Court must
first consider whether each state statute that he violated necessarily proscribes conduct
that “has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of” violent force
against the person of another. If so, it is categorically a “violent felony” under the force
clause of the ACCA.
If, however, the statutory definition of any of Defendant’s prior offenses is
broader than the ACCA’s definition of “violent felony” and the prior offense is
“divisible,” the Court will then apply what is known as a “modified‐categorical
approach.” Ramon Silva, 608 F.3d at 669; see also Mathis, 136 S. Ct. at 2249, 2256. Under
this approach, the Court should consult “charging documents and documents of
conviction to determine whether the defendant in a particular case was convicted of an
offense that qualifies as a violent felony.”5 Id. Any three such felonies may validly
underlie the application of the ACCA enhancement. 18 U.S.C. § 924(e)(2)(B)(i).
III.
ANALYSIS
Defendant’s § 2255 motion argues that his convictions for robbery, aggravated
assault with a deadly weapon, and aggravated battery with a deadly weapon do not
5
Consultation of such documents does not open the door to a subjective fact‐based inquiry as to whether
a particular defendant committed an offense in a violent manner. Rather, the Court may consult these
documents solely to determine the elements of the particular offense a defendant committed where a
statute defines more than one offense, each with separate elements. See Mathis, 136 S. Ct. at 2249.
5
qualify as violent felonies under the ACCA without reliance on the unconstitutional
residual clause struck down in Johnson II. See doc. 1 at 3‐21. Defendant asserts that none
of these offenses satisfies the “elements clause” of the ACCA’s “violent felony”
definition, as the offenses do not require the intentional use of violent physical force
against the person of another. See id. Accordingly, Defendant asserts that he is entitled
to resentencing under Johnson II. Id. at 1, 22.
As a preliminary matter, Defendant’s past convictions clearly do not qualify
under the clause enumerating the specific felonies of “burglary, arson, or extortion,” or
those “involv[ing] use of explosives.” Id. at (e)(2)(B)(ii); see also PSR ¶ 57. Therefore, the
only question before the Court is whether at least three of Defendant’s past convictions
qualify as violent felonies under the “elements clause”—that is, whether each
conviction “has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical
force against the person of another[.]” Id. at (e)(2)(B)(i). Each of Defendant’s predicate
criminal convictions for his armed career criminal designation will be addressed in turn
to determine whether the ACCA enhancement was properly applied in light of Johnson
II.
i. Robbery
Defendant acknowledges that he was convicted of robbery pursuant to N.M.S.A.
§ 30‐16‐2. Doc. 1 at 4‐12. That statute sets forth the elements of the crime as follows:
Robbery consists of the theft of anything of value from the person of
another or from the immediate control of another, by use or threatened use of
6
force or violence.
Whoever commits robbery is guilty of a third degree felony.
Whoever commits robbery while armed with a deadly weapon is, for the
first offense, guilty of a second degree felony and, for second and
subsequent offenses, is guilty of a first degree felony.
N.M.S.A. § 30‐16‐2 (emphasis added).
The United States initially conceded that robbery in New Mexico is no longer a
violent felony under the ACCA, but withdrew its concession in a supplemental brief
following the issuance of the Tenth Circuit’s decision in United States v. Harris, 844 F.3d
1260, 1266‐67 (10th Cir. 2017), petition for cert. filed, Michael Kevin Harris v. United States
(U.S. Apr. 4, 2017) (No. 16‐8616). See doc. 19. In addition to relying on Harris in its
supplemental brief, the United States quoted at length the undersigned’s Proposed
Findings and Recommended Disposition (PFRD) issued in another case in this district
which addressed the same question of law. See id. at 4‐7 (discussing United States v.
Baker, Magistrate Judge’s Proposed Findings and Recommended Disposition, doc. 9 in
16‐cv‐715 PJK/GBW (D.N.M. Dec. 15, 2016), adopted by United States Circuit Judge
Paul Kelly sitting by designation in his Order Adopting Magistrate Judge’s Proposed
Findings and Recommended Disposition, doc. 14 in 16‐cv‐715 PJK/GBW (D.N.M. Mar.
17, 2017)). Defendant articulated his arguments on the merits of the proposed
supplemental brief in his response opposing the United States’ request to file a
supplemental brief. See doc. 17. As noted in the order granting supplemental briefing,
7
Defendant’s arguments in doc. 17 will be considered as a response to the United States’
supplemental brief. Doc. 18.
As discussed above, I have already considered whether New Mexico robbery
“has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical force against
the person of another” as required to satisfy the elements clause of the ACCA, and I
have concluded that it does. See, e.g., Baker, doc. 9 at 6‐13 in 16‐cv‐715 PJK/GBW. The
United States relies heavily on the reasoning of my PFRD in Baker, and Defendant offers
numerous arguments rebutting that reasoning. See generally docs. 17, 19. Having
considered the briefing of the parties, I remain persuaded that New Mexico robbery
constitutes a violent felony under the elements clause of the ACCA. In large part, this
recommendation will follow the reasoning in Baker while responding to Defendant’s
arguments which merit further discussion.
As quoted above, New Mexico’s robbery statute requires (i) a theft (ii) from the
person or immediate control of another (iii) by the use or threatened use of force or
violence. Consequently, “[t]he use of force, violence, or intimidation is an essential
element of robbery.” State v. Lewis, 867 P.2d 1231, 1233 (N.M. Ct. App. 1993). “The
force or intimidation is the gist of the offense.” State v. Sanchez, 430 P.2d 781, 782 (N.M.
Ct. App. 1967). Moreover, the force or fear required “must be the moving cause
inducing the victim to part unwillingly with his property. It must overcome the
victim’s resistance. It must compel one to part with his property. It must be such that
8
the power of the owner to retain his property is overcome.” Id. (internal citations
omitted). In fact, the force (or threatened force) must be employed at the moment of the
taking because “force used to retain property immediately after its nonviolent taking”
does not constitute robbery in New Mexico. Lewis, 867 P.2d at 1234. Rather, “the use or
threatened use of force must be the factor by which the property is removed from the
victim’s possession.” Id. at 1233.
This requirement that the force used must be the lever by which the property is
removed from the person or his immediate control satisfies Johnson I’s requirement that
the force was used against the person of another. This conclusion is bolstered by the
repeated descriptions by the New Mexico courts that the robbery statute “is clearly
designed to protect citizens from violence . . . . Robbery is not merely a property crime,
but a crime against a person.” State v. Bernal, 146 P.3d 289, 296 (N.M. 2006). As the
New Mexico Court of Appeals has explained, the requirement that property be taken
with sufficient force “so as to overcome the resistance of attachment” before larceny is
elevated to robbery is intended to reflect “the increased danger to the person that
robbery involves over the offense of larceny.” State v. Curley, 939 P.2d 1103, 1106 (N.M.
Ct. App. 1997).
Having established that the use or threatened use of force must be against the
person of another, the question still remains whether the amount of force required
under the New Mexico robbery statute is categorically sufficient to meet the standard
9
outlined in Johnson I—that is, “force capable of causing physical pain or injury to
another person.” 559 U.S. at 140. As quoted above, the fundamental requirement is
that the force (or fear of threatened force) “must be the moving cause inducing the
victim to part unwillingly with his property. It must overcome the victim’s resistance.
It must compel one to part with his property. It must be such that the power of the
owner to retain his property is overcome.” Sanchez, 430 P.2d at 782 (internal citations
omitted). Whether the force employed during a larceny is sufficient to elevate the
offense to robbery requires an evaluation by the fact‐finder. See State v. Clokey, 553 P.2d
1260, 1260 (N.M. 1976). De minimis force will not sustain a robbery conviction. See
Curley, 939 P.2d at 1105 (“[W]hen no more force is used than would be necessary to
remove property from a person who does not resist, then the offense is larceny, and not
robbery.”). Mere “touching or jostling,” or even the more overtly forceful act of
pressing a fist into the victim’s back while stealing his property, are all insufficient to
establish the force element; such circumstances support only the lesser conviction of
larceny. Sanchez, 430 P.2d at 782; see also Curley, 939 P.2d at 1104 (rejecting as dictum
language in earlier decisions indicating “that even a slight amount of force, such as
jostling the victim or snatching away the property, is sufficient” force for a robbery
conviction).
The Tenth Circuit recently provided a useful reminder of the nature of the
relevant inquiry when determining if a state statute meets Johnson I’s force requirement.
10
Harris, 844 F.3d at 1264‐65. In considering whether the Colorado offense of robbery
qualified as a “violent felony” under the elements clause of the ACCA, the Harris court
began its analysis with the “oft‐quoted” language from Johnson I: “We think it clear that
in the context of a statutory definition of ‘violent felony,’ the phrase ‘physical force’
means violent force—that is, force capable of causing physical pain or injury to another
person.” Id. at 1264 (citing Johnson I, 559 U.S. at 140) (emphasis in original). The
reminder came next:
It is important to keep in mind why it was necessary for the Court to use
the language it did. For it was rejecting the government’s argument that
physical force means “force” known in common law battery parlance. See
Johnson I, 559 U.S. at 139, 130 S. Ct. 1265 (“There is, however, a more
specialized legal usage of the word ‘force’: its use in describing one of the
elements of the common‐law crime of battery. . . .”). That is, the force
element is satisfied by even the slightest offensive touching. Id. So it
makes sense that the Court, in construing the meaning of physical force in
the ACCA’s violent felony definition, referenced “a substantial degree of
force,” “strong physical force,” or “powerful force.” Indeed, the Court
was differentiating between the force required for the common law
offense of battery.
Id. at 1265 (internal citation omitted). This passage serves to emphasize that, by
requiring something more than the slightest offensive touching – “a substantial degree
of force” – to satisfy the elements clause of the “violent felony” definition, Johnson I did
not thereby create a requirement of extreme violence. As Harris highlighted, force
“capable of causing physical pain or injury” includes “a slap in the face.” Id. (citing
Johnson I, 559 U.S. at 143). In fact, the court cited with approval Justice Scalia’s
concurrence, which identifies “[h]itting, slapping, shoving, grabbing, pinching, biting,
11
[and] hair pulling” as conduct that qualifies as violent force. Id. (quoting United States v.
Castleman, 134 S. Ct. 1405, 1421 (2014) (Scalia, J., concurring)). Moreover, the Harris
court stressed that “in construing the minimum culpable conduct [required by the state
statute], such conduct only includes that [to] which there is a ’realistic probability, not a
theoretical possibility[,]’ the state statute would apply.” Id. at 1264 (citing Moncrieffe v.
Holder, 133 S. Ct. 1678, 1685 (2013)).
With these standards in mind, the court held that the force required by
Colorado’s robbery statute matched the definition of “physical force” set forth in
Johnson I. Harris, 844 F.3d at 1265‐71. Notably, two features of Colorado robbery which
were central to the court’s holding are shared in common with the New Mexico crime of
robbery. First, as in New Mexico, robbery in Colorado requires a taking “by violence or
intimidation.” Id. at 1266 (citing Borghesi, 66 P.3d at 99) (emphasis added); see also Lewis,
867 P.2d at 1233. That is, both statutes require that the force (or threat of force) used
must be the means by which the taking is accomplished. Second, as in New Mexico,
“Coloradoʹs ‘robbery statutes are primarily intended to protect persons and not
property.’” Harris, 844 F.3d at 1267 (citing Borghesi, 66 P.3d at 100‐01); see also Bernal,
146 P.3d at 296. Consequently, both statutes emphasize the “assaultive nature of the
crime[.]” Harris, 844 F.3d at 1267. While the robbery statutes and interpretative caselaw
are not identical in Colorado and New Mexico, the reasoning of Harris supports a
finding that New Mexico’s robbery statute satisfies the Johnson I standard.
12
Another recent Tenth Circuit case is also informative. In United States v. Nicholas,
No. 16‐3043, 2017 WL 1429788 (10th Cir. Apr. 24, 2017) (unpublished), the court was
called upon to decide if a conviction under the Kansas robbery statute satisfied the
Johnson I force requirement. As it must, the court looked first to determine exactly what
kind of force was required under Kansas law to prove robbery. Id. at *3. The court
found the Kansas Supreme Court opinion in State v. McKinney, 961 P.2d 1 (1998)
controlling on that issue. Id. at *3‐*4. In McKinney, the defendant “conceded that he
snatched the purse from the victim’s arm, but denied that he pushed her in the
process.” Id. at *3 (citing McKinney, 961 P.2d at 8). Nonetheless, the McKinney court
held that, even accepting the defendant’s version of facts, he was guilty of robbery. Id.
(citing McKinney, 961 P.2d at 8). Consequently, the Tenth Circuit concluded that,
because no shove or any force beyond the hasty purse snatch was required to underlie a
robbery conviction in McKinney, “Kansas robbery [did not] require[] more than de
minimis physical contact.” Id. at *4. Therefore, the Tenth Circuit concluded that Kansas
robbery did not satisfy the Johnson I force requirement. Id.
Important to the analysis here, New Mexico courts have directly rejected the low
force standard set out in McKinney and found dispositive in Nicholas. As noted above,
de minimis force will not sustain a New Mexico robbery conviction. See Curley, 939 P.2d
at 1104‐05. Mere “touching or jostling,” or even the more overtly forceful act of
pressing a fist into the victim’s back while stealing his property, are all insufficient to
13
establish the force element of robbery. Sanchez, 430 P.2d at 782. In fact, the Curley court
concluded that the defendant was entitled to an instruction on the lesser included
offense of larceny based on his theory of the crime even though he admitted to shoving
the victim before taking her purse, because the jury could have found that the shove
was accidental and independent of the taking. 939 P.2d at 1107. Consequently, if the
facts of McKinney had arisen in New Mexico, they would have been insufficient to
establish a robbery under the Curley precedent, because there was no shove of the
victim, let alone a shove which was the lever separating the victim from her property.
To the undersigned, it appears self‐evident that the force required for robbery in
New Mexico—force which overcomes the victim’s resistance and compels the victim to
part with his property—is at least commensurate to the slapping adequate under
Johnson I. Therefore, I conclude that the crime of robbery in New Mexico “has as an
element the use . . . of physical force against the person of another.” 18 U.S.C. §
924(e)(2)(B)(i).6
Having reviewed the similar analysis in Baker, Defendant raises a number of
arguments in opposition. The undersigned finds none of them persuasive, but some
Though its decision predates Johnson I, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals has reached the same
conclusion. See United States v. Lujan, 9 F.3d 890, 891‐92 (10th Cir. 1993). In Lujan, the Court of Appeals
confronted a defendant convicted of manslaughter in California and robbery in New Mexico, under the
same statute at issue here. Id. at 891. In holding that both convictions constitute “violent felonies” under
the ACCA, the court explained: “[The California manslaughter statute] has ‘as an element the use,
attempted use, or threatened use of physical force against the person of another’ and thus is a violent
felony under the ACCA. The New Mexico robbery statute also contains the required element of force[.]”
Id. at 892 (quoting and italicizing for emphasis the force element of N.M.S.A. § 30‐16‐2).
6
14
merit further discussion.
First, Defendant opposes considering the purpose of New Mexico’s robbery
statute during the “force required” analysis, arguing that “there is a big difference
between the purpose of a statute defining an offense and the elements of that offense.”
Doc. 17 at 9. Defendant points to the fact that “certainly one of the purposes of the
Florida battery statute the Supreme Court [held not to be a violent felony] in Johnson I
was to prevent dangerous and violent altercations.” Id. Defendant argues that the
above analysis (1) ignores the directive from Mathis to consider only the elements of the
offense, and (2) threatens to reintroduce the “rank speculation” required by the
invalidated residual clause. Id. at 10. Defendant’s argument on this point is peculiar.
As he himself points out, the categorical approach requires courts to consider far more
than the bare language of a statute. See doc. 17 at 13‐14. Otherwise, Defendant’s petition
would be dismissed out‐of‐hand, given the similarity between the New Mexico statute’s
requirement of the “use or threatened use of force or violence” against a person and the
ACCA’s requirement of “an element [of] use [or] threatened use of physical force
against the person of another.” Instead, the Court must determine if the degree of force
required by the statute meets the requirement of Johnson I. To do so, the Court looks to
how that element is defined by New Mexico’s state courts. It is those courts which
looked to the purpose of New Mexico’s robbery statute to determine the nature of the
force required. See Bernal, 146 P.3d at 296; Curley, 939 P.2d at 1106. It is entirely
15
appropriate—indeed required—for this Court to rely on their analysis. See, e.g., Harris,
844 F.3d at 1266‐67 (considering the Colorado Supreme Court’s directive that “robbery
statutes are primarily intended to protect persons and not property” in construing the
force element of the Colorado robbery statute) (quoting Borghesi, 66 P.3d at 99); see also
Taylor v. United States, 495 U.S. 575, 593‐94 (1990) (holding that the enumerated crime of
burglary in the ACCA refers to the generic—rather than the common‐law—definition of
burglary because to hold otherwise would “read into the statute a definition of
‘burglary’ . . . obviously ill[‐]suited to [the ACCA’s] purposes.”).
Second, Defendant argues that the amount of force required under the New
Mexico robbery statute is not categorically sufficient to meet the standard outlined in
Johnson I by citing to state jurisprudence instructing that “[t]he amount or degree of
force is not the determinative factor” in establishing the force element of simple
robbery, State v. Martinez, 513 P.2d 402, 402 (N.M. Ct. App. 1973), as well as to the
committee commentary of the New Mexico jury instruction on simple robbery, which
explains that “the amount of force is immaterial.” N.M. R. CR. UJI 14‐1620. See doc. 1 at
6. To the extent that these authorities suggest that no significant force is required to
satisfy the force element of New Mexico robbery, they are contrary to controlling New
Mexico jurisprudence. As cited above, New Mexico courts have held in case after case
that robbery requires the force “must overcome the victim’s resistance. It must compel
one to part with his property. It must be such that the power of the owner to retain his
16
property is overcome.” Sanchez, 430 P.2d at 782 (internal citations omitted); see also
Curley, 939 P.2d at 1104‐06; Lewis, 867 P.2d at 1233‐34; Sanchez, 430 P.2d at 782.
Moreover, viewing these quotes cited by Defendant in isolation removes them
from the context in which they were written. Each is written against the backdrop of
the oft‐stated (both by New Mexico courts and herein) requirement that the force must
be sufficient to overcome the resistance of victim’s attachment. So, these authorities
simply stand for the proposition that the crime of robbery does not require some
absolute level of force. Instead, it is relative to the particular victim and the particular
circumstances. But that standard does not equate to a de minimis one, because the force
must overcome the power of the given victim. This standard is entirely consistent with
the one set out in Johnson I—force “capable of causing physical pain or injury.” 559 U.S.
at 140. Relevant here is the question: “Capable of causing physical pain or injury” to
whom? The Supreme Court never suggested that the answer should be some objective
standard “everyman.” Instead, it makes sense that the force must be capable of causing
pain or injury to the relevant class of victims. For example, under Johnson I, the level of
force required in a statute criminalizing infant abuse would be less than the level of
force required in a generic assault statute. Similarly, the absolute degree of force
required by the New Mexico robbery statute may vary depending on the vulnerability
of the victim who is resisting ‐‐ an elderly person may have her resistance overcome by
lesser force than would be necessary to overcome the resistance of a strong, robust
17
victim. But so, too, would “force capable of causing pain or injury” vary depending on
the vulnerability of the person against whom the force is used. To be clear, this
rationale does not envision considering the facts of individual convictions as is
prohibited by the categorical approach. Instead, the point is that, in every New Mexico
robbery conviction, the government was required to establish that the force used or
threatened was force “necessary to overcome the victim’s resistance.” Curley, 939 P.2d
at 1107. I conclude that such a degree of force would categorically be capable of causing
pain or injury to that victim.
Third, Defendant points to a particular fact pattern to demonstrate the alleged
lack of Johnson I force required under New Mexico robbery. Defendant argues that
Curley would permit a robbery conviction based upon “snatching a pin from a person’s
sweater using force to overcome the sweater’s attachment.” Doc. 17 at 4. He then states
as self‐evident that such force is “not necessarily . . . capable of causing pain or injury.”
Id. I disagree. As the Curley court explained, theft of a pin from a person’s clothing
would only constitute robbery of it was “so attached to the person or his clothes as to
require some force to effect [] removal.” Id. at 1106. In contrast, if such an item was
instead taken by stealth without causing the victim to become “aware that her body is
resisting,” it would constitute only larceny. Id. Force sufficient to rip the fabric of a
sweater on the victim’s person is indeed force necessarily capable of causing pain or
injury to the person, and it far surpasses the mere touching at issue in Johnson I or the
18
“shove‐less” purse snatching in McKinney.
Finally, Defendant argues that Harris is inapposite because there is a “huge
disparity between the extreme, violent force involved in Colorado robbery and the
minimal force involved in New Mexico robbery[.]” Doc. 17 at 16. Defendant
characterizes the force required under the Colorado statute as “extreme” because the
Harris court found that Colorado robbery requires a violent taking. Id. at 15 (citing
Harris, 844 F.3d at 1266‐67). Consequently, the Harris court applied the dictionary
definition of “violent,” which is “characterized by extreme force . . . marked by
abnormally sudden physical activity and intensity.” 844 F.3d at 1267 n.4. However,
New Mexico case law has established that the phrase “or violence,” as used in the
robbery statute, “do[es] not substantively state an alternative means of committing the
offense[.]” Curley, 939 P.2d at 1104. State courts in New Mexico thus use the terms
“force” and “violence” interchangeably when discussing whether the force element of
the statute has been met by an offense. See id. Therefore, insofar as Defendant is relying
on the dictionary definition of “violent” to suggest that Colorado robbery always
requires extreme force, Defendant’s argument undermines his own position given that
the New Mexico robbery also requires violence.
Admittedly, there are differences between Colorado’s and New Mexico’s
respective robbery jurisprudence by which one could distinguish Harris from the
present case. However, Harris stands for a broader point. It serves as a reminder that
19
the definition set forth in Johnson I of “physical force,” as used in the elements clause of
the ACCA, encompasses actions falling far short of extreme violent force in the nature
of Hollywood movies. Johnson I did reject the “slightest offensive touching” common‐
law standard of “force,” instead demanding “a substantial degree of force.” But even
actions like pinching and slapping are sufficiently forceful under Johnson I to amount to
“violent physical force.” Indeed, Johnson I explicitly distinguished the “physical force”
required by the ACCA elements clause from the force “reasonably expected to cause bodily
injury” required by 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(8)(C)(ii), explaining that the former was a lower
standard than the latter. See 559 U.S. at 143 (emphasis added). Defendant’s contention
that New Mexico’s robbery does not satisfy the Johnson I standard appears to be based
largely on comparing it to this higher, and inapplicable, standard.
Based on the foregoing, I conclude that the New Mexico robbery statute “has as
an element the use . . . of physical force against the person of another” as defined by
Johnson I. 18 U.S.C. § 924(e)(2)(B)(i). Therefore, all crimes of robbery in New Mexico are
categorically violent felonies.7 There is significant consensus within this District on this
This conclusion is also supported by the textual history of the ACCA and the Supreme Court’s
interpretation of its general scope. “Prior to the enactment of the current language, the [ACCA] applied
its enhanced sentence to offenders with ‘three previous convictions for robbery or burglary.’” Begay v.
United States, 553 U.S. 137, 143 (2008). The Supreme Court has explained that Congress changed the
language of the statute in order “to expand that definition to include both crimes against the person
(clause (i)) and certain physically risky crimes against property (clause (ii)).” Id. at 143‐44 (emphasis
added); see also Taylor v. United States, 495 U.S. 575, 582 (1990) (describing a 1986 amendment to the ACCA
as one that “expanded the predicate offenses triggering the sentence enhancement from ‘robbery or
burglary’ to ‘a violent felony or a serious drug offense[.]”). Certainly, if generic robbery was originally
included and the definition was subsequently expanded, generic robbery would remain within the ambit
of the ACCA. Moreover, as generic robbery is a crime against the person, it would fall within clause (i) of
7
20
question. See Garcia v. United States, Mem. Op. & Order Overruling Proposed Findings
and Recommended Disposition, doc. 37 in Civ. No. 16‐240 JB/LAM (D.N.M. Jan. 31,
2017) (Browning, J.); Hurtado v. United States, Magistrate Judge’s Proposed Findings and
Recommended Disposition, doc. 17 in Civ. No. 16‐646 JAP/GJF (D.N.M. Jan. 11, 2017);
Contreras v. United States, Order Adopting Magistrate Judge’s Proposed Findings and
Recommended Disposition, doc. 14 in 16‐cv‐0671 RB/SMV (D.N.M. Feb. 24, 2017); see also
Baker, Order Adopting Magistrate Judge’s Proposed Findings and Recommended
Disposition, doc. 14 in 16‐cv‐715 PJK/GBW (D.N.M. Mar. 17, 2017) (Kelly, J.); but see
United States v. King, Magistrate Judge’s Proposed Findings and Recommended
Disposition, and Magistrate Judge’s Supplemental Proposed Findings and
Recommended Disposition, docs. 12, 15 in Civ. No. 16‐501 MV/KK (D.N.M. Dec. 1,
2016).
ii. Aggravated Assault with a Deadly Weapon
Next, Defendant argues that his 1997 conviction for aggravated assault with a
deadly weapon pursuant to N.M.S.A. § 30‐3‐2(A) is not a violent felony under the
ACCA. Doc. 1 at 12‐19; doc. 14 at 16‐21. This argument is foreclosed by a recent
the ACCA – the “force” clause. Notably, New Mexico’s robbery statute is narrower than the uniform
generic definition of robbery. New Mexico still requires that a defendant “must use force before or
during the taking itself” in order to commit robbery. United States v. Garcia‐Caraveo, 586 F.3d 1230, 1235
(10th Cir. 2009). This requirement is a relic of the strict common law to which only five states, including
New Mexico, still adhere. Id. In contrast, generic robbery incorporates the more lenient “continuing
offense theory”—an act of force or violence committed to facilitate escape suffices to satisfy the force
element of robbery. See id. at 1234‐37. Therefore, as generic robbery should remain within the force
clause of the ACCA after its expansion, so should New Mexico’s narrower version.
21
published Tenth Circuit opinion which held that it is. United States v. Maldonado‐Palma,
839 F.3d 1244, 1248‐50 (10th Cir. 2016). Under controlling precedent, “aggravated
assault with a deadly weapon under [N.M.S.A.] § 30‐3‐2(A) is categorically a crime of
violence” under the sentencing guidelines. Id. at 1250. While a “crime of violence”
under the guidelines is distinct from the “violent felony” provision of the ACCA, the
Tenth Circuit has instructed that because the definition of the former is “almost
identical” to the definition of the latter, an “analysis under the ACCA ‘applies equally
to the sentencing guidelines.’” United States v. Charles, 576 F.3d 1060, 1068 n.2 (10th Cir.
2009) (citing United States v. Tiger, 538 F.3d 1297, 1298 (10th Cir. 2008)). The Court may
therefore apply relevant precedent regarding one provision interchangeably to the
other. Thus, Maldonado‐Palma compels the conclusion that Defendant’s aggravated
assault with a deadly weapon offense is a violent felony under the ACCA.
Defendant argues that the Court should not consider itself bound by Maldonado‐
Palma or its predecessor on which much of its reasoning was based, Ramon Silva,
because these cases were wrongly decided. See doc. 14 at 19‐20. In support, Defendant
cites to a recent New Mexico Court of Appeals case in which a defendant was convicted
of aggravated assault of his wife when he shot his son who was standing next to his
wife. State v. Branch, 387 P.3d 250, 256‐57 (N.M. Ct. App. 2016). The Branch court held
that the defendant’s conviction should be upheld despite the fact that the defendant did
not specifically intend to threaten his wife. See id. Defendant argues that Branch stands
22
for the proposition that aggravated assault can therefore be committed against a victim
in New Mexico by, for instance, “negligently handling a gun in a way that reasonably
induces fear in someone.” Doc. 14 at 19. This is not so. Branch explicitly states that
liability under the statute requires a “mental state of conscious wrongdoing,” and that
the conviction could only stand with proof that the defendant “did an unlawful act
which caused the bystander to reasonably believe that she was in danger of receiving an
immediate battery, that the act was done with a deadly weapon, and that it was done
with general criminal intent.” 387 P.3d at 256 (citation omitted) (emphasis added).
Defendant is correct in stating that the crime does not entail the specific intent to
intimidate a particular victim. However, “[t]he presence or absence of an element of
specific intent does not dispositively determine whether a prior conviction qualifies as a
violent felony under the ACCA.” Ramon Silva, 608 F.3d at 673. In Ramon Silva, the
Tenth Circuit considered whether “apprehension causing” aggravated assault (i.e.,
“engaging in conduct with a deadly weapon that causes the victim to believe or she was
about to receive a battery”) constituted a violent felony under the ACCA, despite the
statute’s requirement of only general criminal intent rather than specific intent to cause
apprehension in the victim. Id. at 669‐73. In finding that it did, the court held that as
long as a crime requires that a defendant intentionally engaged in conduct that
“constitut[ed] the threatened use of physical force,” such a crime has as an element the
threatened use of physical force meeting the Johnson I standard, even if the defendant
23
did not specifically intend to communicate such threat of force. Id. at 673. This
conclusion is not at odds with Branch, which preserved the prerequisite of general
criminal intent under the aggravated assault statute. Therefore, Defendant is incorrect
to state that mere negligent handling of a firearm could suffice to uphold a conviction of
aggravated assault in New Mexico after Branch. Such an act does not involve the
requisite “mental state of conscious wrongdoing.” Branch, 387 P.3d at 256.
Therefore, I recommend that the Court follow the binding precedent of
Maldonado‐Palma, which compels the conclusion that aggravated assault with a deadly
weapon is a violent felony under the elements clause of the ACCA. See 839 F.3d at
1248‐50.
iii. Aggravated Battery with a Deadly Weapon
The third predicate offense underlying the application of the ACCA
enhancement to Defendant’s conviction is Aggravated Battery, Deadly Weapon, in
violation of N.M.S.A. § 30‐3‐5. That statute provides:
A. Aggravated battery consists of the unlawful touching or application of
force to the person of another with intent to injure that person or
another.
B. Whoever commits aggravated battery, inflicting an injury to the person
which is not likely to cause death or great bodily harm, but does cause
painful temporary disfigurement or temporary loss or impairment of
the functions of any member or organ of the body, is guilty of a
misdemeanor.
C. Whoever commits aggravated battery inflicting great bodily harm or
does so with a deadly weapon or does so in any manner whereby great
bodily harm or death can be inflicted is guilty of a third degree felony.
24
N.M.S.A. § 30‐3‐5. Defendant argues that his conviction of aggravated battery with a
deadly weapon does not constitute a violent felony because “[t]he least touching of
another’s person willfully, or in anger, is a battery” and “[b]attery does not even require
touching of the person of another. Touching or applying force to another’s clothing or
something else intimately connected with the victim’s body is sufficient.” Doc. 1 at 20.
This argument is without merit.
As an initial matter, Defendant ignores an important element which is present
even in the misdemeanor version of aggravated battery – the intent to injure. One
certainly could conclude that the application of force to the person of another with the
intent to injure the person qualifies under Johnson I as the attempted or threatened use
of “force capable of causing physical pain or injury to another person.” 559 U.S. at 140;
see State v. Vallejos, 9 P.3d 668, 674 (N.M. Ct. App. 2000) (“The aggravated battery statute
is directed at preserving the integrity of a person’s body against serious injury.”).
However, because Defendant was convicted of a more serious felony version of
aggravated battery, the Court need not decide that question.
Defendant was convicted of Aggravated Battery with a Deadly Weapon, in
violation of N.M.S.A. § 30‐3‐5(C). The felony versions of the crime are divisible from
the misdemeanor version. See Mathis, 136 S. Ct. at 2249 (statutes listing elements in the
alternative, thereby defining multiple crimes, are divisible); see also N.M.S.A. § 31‐18‐
15(A)(11) (providing for a basic sentence of three years imprisonment for a third‐degree
25
felony such as aggravated battery with a deadly weapon). In short, a conviction under
N.M.S.A. § 30‐3‐5(C) enhances the maximum punishment and requires proof of one of
the following: (i) that the battery caused great bodily harm; (ii) that the battery was
accomplished by the use of a deadly weapon; or (iii) that the battery was accomplished
in a manner whereby great bodily harm could be inflicted. Certainly, if the battery
caused great bodily harm or was done in a manner whereby great bodily harm could be
inflicted, the battery involved “force capable of causing physical pain or injury to
another person” as required by Johnson I. 559 U.S. at 140. With respect to a battery in
which a deadly weapon was used, the answer is dictated by Maldonado‐Palma. 839 F.3d
1244.
As discussed above, in Maldonado‐Palma, the court considered whether a New
Mexico conviction for aggravated assault with a deadly weapon categorically
constituted a “crime of violence” for the purposes of U.S.S.G. § 2L1.2(b)(1)(A)(ii).8 Id. at
1246‐50. The court first confirmed that, under New Mexico law, aggravated assault
with a deadly weapon requires use of the deadly weapon—mere possession does not
suffice to satisfy the elements. 839 F.3d at 1249‐50. After reviewing the New Mexico
definition of “deadly weapon,” the court concluded that employing such a weapon
“necessarily threatens the use of physical force, i.e., ‘force capable of causing physical
The guideline amendments made effective November 1, 2016 eliminated the relevant text of this portion
of the guidelines, which previously instructed the sentencing court to increase a defendant’s base offense
level if “the defendant previously was deported, or unlawfully remained in the United States, after a
conviction for a felony that is . . . a crime of violence[.]” The revision does not affect the present analysis.
8
26
pain or injury to another person.’” Id. at 1250 (quoting Johnson I, 559 U.S. at 140); see also
Ramon Silva, 608 F.3d. at 669‐71.
As with aggravated assault with a deadly weapon, aggravated battery with a
deadly weapon requires proof of use of the deadly weapon under New Mexico law. See
N.M.S.A. § 30‐3‐5(C); see also N.M. R. CR. 14‐322 (instructing that aggravated battery
with a deadly weapon requires proof that the defendant “touched or applied force to”
the victim with a deadly weapon and that “[t]he defendant used” a deadly weapon
(emphasis added)). Consequently, the logic in Maldonado‐Palma compels the conclusion
that a New Mexico conviction for aggravated battery with a deadly weapon
categorically qualifies as a violent felony under the ACCA. In fact, given that
Maldonado‐Palma involved only an assault, and Defendant’s conviction involved a
completed battery, the logic applies in even greater force here. This conclusion is
further supported by the fact that the Supreme Court in the Johnson I opinion itself cited
with approval Black’s definition of “violent felony” as “a crime characterized by
extreme physical force, such as . . . assault and battery with a dangerous weapon” while
parsing the meaning of the ACCA’s force clause. 559 U.S. at 140‐41 (emphasis added).
In conclusion, all three of the means by which one can violate N.M.S.A. § 30‐3‐
5(C) satisfy the force requirement set out in Johnson I. As such, Defendant’s conviction
under that statute constitutes a “violent felony” under the ACCA.
27
IV.
CONCLUSION
Defendant’s challenge to his sentence under Johnson II should be denied. Even
post‐Johnson II, his criminal history includes at least three violent felony convictions
which trigger the application of the ACCA’s fifteen‐year mandatory minimum and the
sentencing guideline enhancement under U.S.S.G. § 4B1.4(b).
Accordingly, I recommend that the Court DENY Defendant’s Motion to Vacate,
Set Aside, or Correct Sentence under 28 U.S.C. § 2255, and dismiss this case with
prejudice.
GREGORY B. WORMUTH
United States Magistrate Judge
THE PARTIES ARE FURTHER NOTIFIED THAT WITHIN 14 DAYS OF SERVICE of
a copy of these Proposed Findings and Recommended Disposition they may file written
objections with the Clerk of the District Court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 636(b)(1). A party
must file any objections with the Clerk of the District Court within the fourteen‐day
period if that party wants to have appellate review of the proposed findings and
recommended disposition. If no objections are filed, no appellate review will be
allowed.
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