Djanie v. Holder
Filing
OPINION, petition for review is denied, by BDP, DAL, CFD, FILED.[1298179] [12-3779]
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Doe v. Holder
In the
United States Court of Appeals
For the Second Circuit
________
No. 12‐3779‐ag
JOHN DOE,
Petitioner,
v.
ERIC H. HOLDER, Jr., United States Attorney General,
Respondent.
________
Petition for review from the Board of Immigration Appeals.
________
ARGUED: MAY 29, 2014
DECIDED: AUGUST 19, 2014
________
Before: PARKER, LIVINGSTON, and DRONEY, Circuit Judges.
________
In this petition for review of a Board of Immigration Appeals
(“BIA”) decision, we consider whether the protection of witnesses
provisions of the United Nations Convention Against Transnational
Organized Crime (“CATOC”) are self‐executing. We hold that those
provisions are not self‐executing. Accordingly, the petition for
review is DENIED.
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________
WHITNEY W. ELLIOTT, Newark, New Jersey, for
John Doe.
JESSICA A. DAWGERT, Trial Attorney (Stuart F.
Delery, Acting Assistant Attorney General, Leslie
McKay, Assistant Director, Margot L. Carter, Trial
Attorney, on the brief), Office of Immigration
Litigation, Civil Division, United States
Department of Justice, Washington, D.C., for Eric
H. Holder, Jr., United States Attorney General.
________
BARRINGTON D. PARKER, Circuit Judge:
In this petition for review of a Board of Immigration Appeals
(“BIA”) decision, we consider whether the protection of witnesses
provisions of the United Nations Convention Against Transnational
Organized Crime, opened for signature Dec. 12, 2000, T.I.A.S. 13127,
2225 U.N.T.S. 209 (“CATOC”)1 are self‐executing. We hold that
those provisions are not self‐executing. Accordingly, the petition for
review is DENIED.
1
The CATOC is a treaty signed and ratified by the United States.
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I. BACKGROUND
Petitioner, John Doe, a native and citizen of Ghana, was a
lawful permanent resident of the United States when he was
arrested after admitting he expected to receive a package addressed
to him that contained a quantity of heroin. Following his arrest, Doe
admitted to participating in an international drug smuggling ring.
Doe cooperated with federal agents to arrange a controlled delivery
of the heroin to another individual in this country. The controlled
delivery led to the arrest of one of the individuals who had hired
Doe to receive the heroin. That individual was ultimately convicted
and imprisoned.
Doe pled guilty to an information including a count related to
his heroin smuggling activities. The Department of Homeland
Security issued a Notice to Appear, alleging that Doe was removable
from the United States based on his conviction for an aggravated
felony and controlled substance offense. Doe’s attorney inquired
about an S visa,2 available to certain non‐citizens who assist with
2
An “S visa” refers to the nonimmigrant classification for aliens who cooperate in
criminal or terrorism investigations. See 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(15)(S). As relevant to this appeal,
S visas are available to an alien who “is in possession of critical reliable information
concerning a criminal organization or enterprise,” “is willing to supply or has supplied such
information” to law enforcement authorities or the courts, and whose presence is essential
to the success of the investigation or prosecution as determined by the Attorney General.
Id. A law enforcement agency must apply for an S visa on behalf of a cooperating witness.
8 C.F.R. § 214.2(t). The S visa application requires the law enforcement agency seeking the
visa to specify whether the alien will be placed in danger in the United States and/or abroad
due to his or her cooperation. See F o r m I ‐ 8 5 4 ( a v a i l a b le at
www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/files/form/i‐854.pdf).
An S visa is a temporary visa that allows an alien to remain in the country for three
years. 8 U.S.C. § 1184(k)(2). During that period, however, the sponsoring law enforcement
agency may request that the Department of Homeland Security adjust the status of an
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criminal investigations, but the Assistant United States Attorney
assigned to Doe’s case elected not to request such a visa on Doe’s
behalf in exchange for his cooperation. In immigration court, Doe
admitted the factual allegations in the Notice to Appear and
conceded removability, but sought protection from removal under
the United Nations Convention Against Torture (“CAT”) and the
CATOC.
At the conclusion of the removal proceedings, the
Immigration Judge denied Doe’s request for protection under the
CAT and noted that the request for protection under the CATOC
was outside the immigration court’s jurisdiction. Doe appealed to
the BIA, raising his CAT and CATOC claims, as well as two new
arguments based on the “state‐created danger” doctrine and
equitable estoppel. The BIA rejected all four claims and dismissed
the appeal. The BIA concluded that it lacked jurisdiction to consider
claims for relief under the CATOC because the Attorney General
had not delegated authority over such requests to immigration
judges or to the BIA.
Doe now seeks review of the decision of the BIA affirming the
decision of the Immigration Judge. Because Doe does not challenge
the agency’s denial of CAT relief, equitable estoppel, and relief
under the state‐created danger doctrine, those arguments are not
before us and we address only his assertion that he is entitled to
relief as a criminal informant under the CATOC. See Yueqing Zhang
v. Gonzales, 426 F.3d 540, 541 n.1 (2d Cir. 2005). On appeal, Doe
primarily contends that the CATOC is a self‐executing treaty that he
individual with an S visa to that of lawful permanent resident. 8 U.S.C. § 1255(j).
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can enforce through a private right of action in this Court,
independent of any delegation of authority to the BIA.
II. DISCUSSION
A. Jurisdiction and Standard of Review
Although in most circumstances, we lack jurisdiction to
adjudicate petitions for review from aliens such as Doe who have
been convicted of a controlled substance offense, see 8 U.S.C.
§ 1252(a)(2)(C), because his petition raises a legal issue, we have
jurisdiction to hear his claim pursuant to 8 U.S.C. § 1252(a)(2)(D).
In deciding a petition for review of a BIA order, we ordinarily
review the BIA’s decision alone. Where, as here, the BIA has
adopted and supplemented the Immigration Judge’s decision,
however, we review that decision as supplemented by the BIA. See
Santoso v. Holder, 580 F.3d 110, 111 (2d Cir. 2009) (per curiam).
Where a petitioner raises a question of law, we review agency
determinations de novo. Padmore v. Holder, 609 F.3d 62, 67 (2d Cir.
2010) (per curiam). Although we accord significant deference to BIA
interpretations of the statute it administers, Bah v. Mukasey, 529 F.3d
99, 110 (2d Cir. 2008), we will not defer to the BIA’s interpretation of
the CATOC because it has not been charged with administration of
its provisions, see Michel v. I.N.S., 206 F.3d 253, 262 (2d Cir. 2000)
(holding that deference to BIA interpretations is not afforded where
the BIA is not interpreting laws it administers). We therefore review
the BIA’s decision on Doe’s CATOC claim de novo. See Swarna v. Al‐
Awadi, 622 F.3d 123, 132 (2d Cir. 2010) (explaining that we review
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treaty interpretation by a lower court de novo). However, even
though our review of the BIA’s decision is de novo, we do not ignore
the government’s views entirely. The Supreme Court has explained
that “the meaning attributed to treaty provisions by the Government
agencies charged with their negotiation and enforcement is entitled
to great weight,” though it is “not conclusive.” Sumitomo Shoji Am.,
Inc. v. Avagliano, 457 U.S. 176, 184‐85 (1982); see also Pierre v. Gonzales,
502 F.3d 109, 116 (2d Cir. 2007) (“In construing treaty language,
respect is ordinarily due the reasonable views of the Executive
Branch.” (internal quotation marks and alterations omitted)). Thus,
while the BIA’s interpretation of the CATOC is not entitled to
deference, the views of the Executive Branch agencies, such as the
Department of State, that were and are “charged with the[]
negotiation and enforcement” of the treaty are “entitled to great
weight.” Sumitomo, 457 U.S. at 184‐85.
B. The Witness Protection Provisions of the CATOC Are Not Self‐
Executing
This Court has not determined whether the witness protection
provisions of the CATOC are self‐executing and, therefore,
enforceable in agency removal proceedings or in the courts. See
Rranci v. Attorney General, 540 F.3d 165, 179 (3d Cir. 2008)
(remanding the issue to the BIA for guidance); see also Musau v.
Carlson, 499 F. App’x 837, 841‐42 (10th Cir. 2012). The BIA has
determined that those provisions are not. See In re G‐K‐, 26 I. & N.
Dec. 88, 95 (BIA 2013). As noted above, we review this conclusion de
novo, without deference to the BIA’s interpretation
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As the Supreme Court explained, courts have “long
recognized the distinction between treaties that automatically have
effect as domestic law, and those that—while they constitute
international law commitments—do not by themselves function as
binding federal law.” Medellín v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491, 504 (2008). “[A]
treaty is equivalent to an act of the legislature, and hence self‐
executing, when it operates of itself without the aid of any legislative
provision.” Id. at 505 (internal quotation marks omitted). “[W]hile
treaties may comprise international commitments[,] they are not
domestic law unless Congress has either enacted implementing
statutes or the treaty itself conveys an intention that it be ‘self‐
executing’ and is ratified on these terms.” Id. (internal quotation
marks and alterations omitted); see also United States v. Bahel, 662
F.3d 610, 629 (2d Cir. 2011) (“[I]n order for a treaty to be self‐
executing, and thus not require independent action from Congress,
the treaty’s terms must reflect such an intention by both the
President, who negotiated it, and the Senate, which provided its
advice and consent.”).
To determine whether a treaty is self‐executing, we begin with
the text. Mora v. New York, 524 F.3d 183, 194 (2d Cir. 2008).
Aspirational language is the hallmark of a non‐self‐executing treaty
because it describes only a “commitment . . . to take future action
through [the member states’] political branches to comply with [the
treaty].” Medellín, 552 U.S. at 508 (internal quotation marks and
emphasis omitted). Such is the case when the treaty provides that
the parties “undertake[] to comply,” as opposed to “shall” or “must”
comply, with its terms. Id. However, even mandatory language
may not be conclusive evidence that a provision is self‐executing if
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the context and treaty objectives indicate otherwise. See Mora, 524
F.3d at 194 (explaining that treaty interpretation requires
consideration of not only the text of the treaty, but also “the context
in which the written words are used”).
The CATOC’s stated purpose is to “promote cooperation to
prevent and combat transnational organized crime more
effectively.” CATOC, art. 1. Article 24, titled “Protection of
witnesses,” provides:
Each State Party shall take appropriate measures within
its means to provide effective protection from potential
retaliation or intimidation for witnesses in criminal
proceedings who give testimony concerning offences
covered by [the] Convention . . . .
Id., art. 24. Doe argues that Article 24’s mandate, that the United
States “shall take appropriate measures” to protect witnesses,
indicates a non‐discretionary obligation. But we believe that this
provision, when taken in context, reflects only a non‐self‐executing
undertaking. Under the CATOC, the signatories commit to provide
“effective” witness protection, art. 24, to encourage “cooperation to
prevent and combat transnational organized crime,” art. 1.
“Effective” protection is not specifically defined. Rather, Article 24
explains later that such protection “may” consist of, “inter alia,”
physical protection, relocation, non‐disclosure of the witness’s
identity and location, and the use of video‐link testimony. It is
therefore left to the signatory’s discretion to determine what
measures are “appropriate” and “within its means,” and what
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protection is sufficiently “effective,” suggesting that the provision
has no immediate legal effect. See In re G‐K‐, 26 I. & N. Dec. at 94‐95.
Other provisions of the CATOC support this view. Article 34,
titled “Implementation of the Convention,” states that “[e]ach State
Party shall take necessary measures, including legislative and
administrative measures, . . . to ensure the implementation of its
obligations under this Convention.” CATOC, art. 34 (emphasis
added). Thus, the CATOC specifically envisions that it will be
implemented by additional domestic legislative actions. Moreover,
a signatory must “take necessary measures” only “in accordance
with fundamental principles of its domestic law.” Id. A State
Party’s commitments under CATOC are, therefore, secondary to the
“fundamental principles of its domestic law.” Id. Because a
signatory must in the first instance determine what measures
comply both with its treaty obligations and its domestic law, the
CATOC’s text indicates that Article 24 is not self‐executing. See
Medellín, 552 U.S. at 508.
The Executive and Legislative Branches have reached the
same conclusion. When submitting the treaty to the President, the
Secretary of State explained that the witness protection measures
under Article 24 are undertaken “in [a State Party’s] discretion,” and
recommended that the Senate include a declaration that the only
exceptions to the “general understanding that the provisions of the
[CATOC] are non‐self‐executing” are the detailed provisions of
Articles 16 and 18. See S. Treaty Doc. No. 108‐16. The Secretary of
State added that Article 24 could be implemented by the United
States under current statutes and regulations. In his letter
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transmitting the treaty to the Senate for ratification, the President
explained that the Convention would not require implementing
legislation. Id.
Doe argues that the Executive Branch’s interpretation is not
entitled to deference because Congress rejected it. However,
independent of Congress’s interpretation, “the meaning attributed to
treaty provisions by the Government agencies charged with their
negotiation and enforcement is entitled to great weight.” Sumitomo,
457 U.S. at 184‐85 (deferring to the Department of State’s
interpretation). Moreover, contrary to Doe’s assertion, Congress did
not disagree with the Executive’s interpretation. Although the
Senate did not include a declaration concerning whether the witness
protection provisions were self‐executing when ratifying the
CATOC, it noted in its summary that Articles 16 and 18 are self‐
executing, thereby implying that the other articles are not. See S.
Exec. Rep. No. 109‐4, at 6‐7 (2005); see also Guo v. Dep’t of Justice, 422
F.3d 61, 64 (2d Cir. 2005) (discussing statutory construction principle
that the expression of one thing is the exclusion of another). The
Senate was apparently also of the view that implementing legislation
was not necessary because the “existing body of federal and state
laws [] suffice,” but for the few exceptions it adopted from the
Executive Branch’s submission. See S. Exec. Rep. No. 109‐4, at 4‐5.
These statements demonstrate to us that both the Executive and
Legislative Branches deemed Article 24 non‐self‐executing, a
conclusion to which we are obligated to give great weight. See
Sumitomo, 457 U.S. at 184‐85. Accordingly, because the CATOC does
not “operate[] of itself without the aid of any legislative provision,”
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but rather is implemented by domestic legislation, it is not “self‐
executing.” Medellín, 552 U.S. at 505
As a non‐self‐executing treaty provision, Article 24 could not
be enforced absent implementing legislation. And Congress has not
passed new implementing legislation because, as it declared, that
legislation already existed. Indeed, in the immigration context, there
are numerous protections for witnesses: those assisting in the
investigation or prosecution of organized crime, human trafficking,
and other criminal activity may be granted nonimmigrant status, see
8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(15)(S), (T), (U), and the CAT prohibits removal if
torture in the country of removal is likely, see 8 C.F.R. §§ 1208.16
(CAT withholding of removal), 1208.17 (CAT deferral of removal).
Doe exhausted the applicable avenues of relief. Although he argues
that the CATOC envisaged greater protection, the relief he seeks
cannot be enforced by the Board, the district court, or this court
because the treaty is not self‐executing.
CONCLUSION
The petition for review is DENIED. As we have completed
our review, any stay of removal that the Court previously granted in
this petition is VACATED, and any pending motion for a stay of
removal in this petition is DISMISSED as moot.
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