Catskill Mountains Chapter of v. United States Environmental Pr
Filing
OPINION, reversing the judgment of the district court and reinstating the challenged rule, by RDS, DC, SLC, FILED Judge Chin dissents by seperate opinion.[1949316] [14-1823, 14-1909, 14-1991, 14-1997, 14-2003]
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14‐1823 (L)
Catskill Mountains Chapter of Trout Unlimited, Inc. v. EPA (Catskill III)
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UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
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August Term, 2015
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(Argued: December 1, 2015
Decided: January 18, 2017)
Docket Nos. 14‐1823, 14‐1909, 14‐1991, 14‐1997, 14‐2003
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Catskill Mountains Chapter of Trout Unlimited, Inc., Theodore Gordon
Flyfishers, Inc., Catskill‐Delaware Natural Water Alliance, Inc., Federated
Sportsmenʹs Clubs of Ulster County, Inc., Riverkeeper, Inc., Waterkeeper
Alliance, Inc., Trout Unlimited, Inc., National Wildlife Federation, Environment
America, Environment New Hampshire, Environment Rhode Island,
Environment Florida, State of New York, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Maine,
Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Washington,
Plaintiffs‐Appellees,
Government of the Province of Manitoba, Canada,
Consolidated Plaintiff‐Appellee,
Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida, Friends of the Everglades, Florida
Wildlife Federation, Sierra Club,
Intervenor Plaintiffs‐Appellees,
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v.
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United States Environmental Protection Agency, Gina McCarthy, in her official
capacity as Administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Defendants‐Appellants‐Cross Appellees,
State of Colorado, State of New Mexico, State of Alaska, Arizona Department of
Water Resources, State of Idaho, State of Nebraska, State of North Dakota, State
of Nevada, State of Texas, State of Utah, State of Wyoming, Central Arizona
Water Conservation District, Central Utah Water Conservancy District, City and
County of Denver, by and through its Board of Water Commissioners, City and
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County of San Francisco Public Utilities Commission, City of Boulder [Colorado],
City of Aurora [Colorado], El Dorado Irrigation District, Idaho Water Users
Association, Imperial Irrigation District, Kane County [Utah] Water Conservancy
District, Las Vegas Valley Water District, Lower Arkansas Valley Water
Conservancy District, Metropolitan Water District of Southern California,
National Water Resources Association, Salt Lake & Sandy [Utah] Metropolitan
Water District, Salt River Project, San Diego County Water Authority,
Southeastern Colorado Water Conservancy District, The City of Colorado
Springs, acting by and through its enterprise Colorado Springs Utilities,
Washington County [Utah] Water District, Western Urban Water Coalition,
[California] State Water Contractors, City of New York,
Intervenor Defendants‐Appellants‐Cross Appellees,
Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District,
Intervenor Defendant,
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v.
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South Florida Water Management District,
Intervenor Defendant‐Appellant‐Cross Appellant.
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Before:
SACK, CHIN, and CARNEY, Circuit Judges.
In 2008, the United States Environmental Protection Agency promulgated
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the ʺWater Transfers Rule,ʺ which formalized the Agencyʹs longstanding position
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that water transfers are not subject to regulation under the National Pollutant
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Discharge Elimination System permitting program established decades ago by
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the Clean Water Act. Shortly thereafter, the plaintiffs, a consortium of
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environmental conservation and sporting organizations and several state,
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provincial, and tribal governments, challenged the Water Transfers Rule by
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bringing suit in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New
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York against the Agency and its Administrator. After a variety of persons and
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entities on both sides of the issue intervened, the district court (Kenneth M.
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Karas, Judge) granted summary judgment for the plaintiffs on the ground that the
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Water Transfers Rule, although entitled to deferential review under the two‐step
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framework established by Chevron, U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense
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Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984), could not survive judicial scrutiny because it was
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based on an unreasonable interpretation of the Clean Water Act. The district
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court accordingly vacated the Water Transfers Rule and remanded it to the
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Agency for further assessment. We conclude that the Water Transfers Rule is
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based on a reasonable interpretation of the Clean Water Act and therefore
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entitled to Chevron deference. Accordingly, the judgment of the district court is
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REVERSED.
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Judge Chin dissents in a separate opinion.
BARBARA D. UNDERWOOD, Solicitor
General (Steven C. Wu, Deputy Solicitor
General; Judith N. Vale, Assistant Solicitor
General; Lemuel Srolovic, Bureau Chief;
Philip Bein, Watershed Inspector General;
Meredith Lee‐Clark, Assistant Attorney
General, Environmental Protection Bureau,
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on the brief), for Eric T. Schneiderman,
Attorney General of the State of New York,
New York, New York, for Plaintiffs‐Appellees
the States of New York, Connecticut, Delaware,
Illinois, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota,
Missouri, and Washington, and the Province of
Manitoba.
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Daniel E. Estrin, Karl S. Coplan, Pace
Environmental Litigation Clinic, Inc., White
Plains, New York, (on the brief), for Plaintiffs‐
Appellees Catskill Mountains Chapter of Trout
Unlimited, Inc., Theodore Gordon Flyfishers,
Inc., Catskill‐Delaware Natural Water
Alliance, Inc., Federated Sportsmenʹs Clubs of
Ulster County, Inc., Riverkeeper, Inc.,
Waterkeeper Alliance, Inc., Trout Unlimited,
Inc., National Wildlife Federation,
Environment America, Environment New
Hampshire, Environment Rhode Island, and
Environment Florida.
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Yinet Pino, Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of
Florida, Miami, Florida; David G. Guest,
Earthjustice, Tallahassee, Florida, (on the
brief), for Intervenor Plaintiffs‐Appellees
Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida, Friends
of the Everglades, Florida Wildlife Federation,
and Sierra Club.
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ROBERT WILLIAM YALEN (Benjamin H.
Torrance, on the briefs), for Preet Bharara,
United States Attorney for the Southern
District of New York, for Defendants‐
Appellants United States Environmental
Protection Agency and Gina McCarthy.
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PETER D. NICHOLS, Berg Hill Greenleaf &
Ruscitti LLP, Boulder, Colorado (Don Baur
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& Paul Smyth, Perkins Coie LLP,
Washington, District of Columbia, on the
brief), for Intervenor Defendants‐Appellants‐
Cross Appellees Central Arizona Water
Conservation District, Central Utah Water
Conservancy District, City and County of
Denver, by and through its Board of Water
Commissioners, City and County of San
Francisco Public Utilities Commission, City of
Boulder [Colorado], City of Aurora [Colorado],
El Dorado Irrigation District, Idaho Water
Users Association, Imperial Irrigation District,
Kane County [Utah] Water Conservancy
District, Las Vegas Valley Water District,
Lower Arkansas Valley Water Conservancy
District, The Metropolitan Water District of
Southern California, National Water Resources
Association, Salt Lake & Sandy [Utah]
Metropolitan Water District, Salt River
Project, San Diego County Water Authority,
Southeastern Colorado Water Conservancy
District, The City of Colorado Springs, Acting
by and through its Enterprise Colorado Springs
Utilities, Washington County [Utah] Water
District, Western Urban Water Coalition, and
[California] State Water Contractors.1
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JULIE STEINER (Larry Sonnenshein &
Hilary Meltzer, on the briefs), for Zachary W.
Carter, Corporation Counsel of the City of
New York, New York, New York, for
Intervenor Defendant‐Appellant‐Cross
Appellee City of New York.
Peter D. Nichols also appeared at oral argument on behalf of Intervenor‐Defendants‐
Appellants‐Cross Appellees States of Colorado, New Mexico, Alaska, Arizona
(Department of Water Resources), Idaho, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Texas,
Utah, and Wyoming.
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JAMES EDWARD NUTT, South Florida
Water Management District, West Palm
Beach, Florida, for Intervenor Defendant‐
Appellant‐Cross‐Appellant South Florida
Water Management District.
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Annette M. Quill, Senior Assistant
Attorney General, State of Colorado,
Denver, Colorado, (on the briefs), for
Intervenor‐Defendants‐Appellants‐Cross
Appellees States of Colorado, New Mexico,
Alaska, Arizona (Department of Water
Resources), Idaho, Nebraska, Nevada, North
Dakota, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming.
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Ellen B. Steen, Danielle Hallcom Quist,
American Farm Bureau Federation,
Washington, District of Columbia; Staci
Braswell, Florida Farm Bureau Federation,
Gainesville, Florida; Timothy S. Bishop,
Michael B. Kimberly, Mayer Brown LLP,
Washington, District of Columbia, (on the
brief), for Amici Curiae—American Farm
Bureau Federation and Florida Farm Bureau
Federation.
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Laura Murphy & Patrick Parenteau,
Environmental & Natural Resources Law
Clinic, Vermont Law School, South
Royalton, Vermont, (on the brief), for Amici
Curiae—Leon G. Billings, Tom Jorling, Jeffrey
G. Miller, Robert W. Adler, William Andreen,
Harrison C. Dunning, Mark Squillace, and
Sandra B. Zellmer.
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Kamala D. Harris, Attorney General;
Robert W. Byrne, Senior Assistant Attorney
General; Gavin G. McCabe, Supervising
Deputy Attorney General; William Jenkins,
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Deputy Attorney General; State of
California Department of Justice, Office of
the Attorney General, San Francisco,
California, (on the brief), for Amicus Curiae—
State of California by and through the
California Department of Water Resources.
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Michael A. Swiger, Charles R. Sensiba,
Sharon L. White, Van Ness Feldman, LLP,
Washington, District of Columbia, (on the
brief), for Amici Curiae—National Hydropower
Association, Northwest Hydroelectric
Association, American Public Power
Association, Sabine River Authority of Texas,
Sabine River Authority State of Louisiana, and
Oglethorpe Power Corporation.
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SACK, Circuit Judge:
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ʺWater, water, everywhere / Nor any drop to drink.ʺ2
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Because New York City cannot tap the rivers, bays, and ocean that inhabit,
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surround, or, on occasion, inundate it to slake the thirst of its many millions of
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residents, it must instead draw water primarily from remote areas north of the
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City, mainly the Catskill Mountain/Delaware River watershed west of the
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Hudson River, and the Croton Watershed east of the Hudson River and closer to
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner pt. II, st. 9 (1798) (as many
high school students likely already know).
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New York City.3 Water is drawn from the Schoharie Reservoir4 through the
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eighteen‐mile‐long Shandaken Tunnel into the Esopus Creek. The Creekʹs water,
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in turn, flows into another reservoir, then through an aqueduct, and then
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through several more reservoirs and tunnels alongside the Hudson River, having
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crossed the River to its Eastern shore some 50 miles north of New York City.
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Eventually, it arrives at its final destination: the many taps, faucets, and the like
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within the Cityʹs five boroughs.
The movement of water from the Schoharie Reservoir through the
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Shandaken Tunnel into the Esopus Creek is what is known as a ʺwater transfer,ʺ
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an activity that conveys or connects waters of the United States without
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subjecting those waters to any intervening industrial, municipal, or commercial
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use. Water transfers are an integral part of Americaʹs water‐supply
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infrastructure, of which the Schoharie Reservoir system is but a very small part.
For a New York State Department of Environmental Conservation map of the
system, see New York Cityʹs Water Supply System, N.Y.C. Depʹt of Envtl. Prot.,
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/water_pdf/nycsystem.pdf (last visited July 18, 2016),
archived at https://perma.cc/JG4J‐FP3E.
4 The reservoir is ʺroughly 110 miles from New York City. . . . [It] is one of two
reservoirs in the Cityʹs Catskill system, and the northernmost reservoir in the entire
[New York City] Water Supply System.ʺ Schoharie, N.Y.C. Depʹt of Envtl. Prot.,
http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/watershed_protection/schoharie.shtml (last visited
July 18, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/ZPV4‐EPCZ.
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Each year, thousands of water transfers are employed in the course of bringing
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water to homes, farms, and factories not only in the occasionally rain‐soaked
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Eastern, Southern, and Middle‐ and North‐Western portions of the country, but
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also in the arid West (including large portions of the Southwest). Usable bodies
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of water in the West tend to be scarce, and most precipitation there falls as snow,
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often in sparsely populated areas at considerable distance from their water
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authoritiesʹ urban and agricultural clientele.
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Historically, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (the
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ʺEPAʺ) has taken a hands‐off approach to water transfers, choosing not to subject
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them to the requirements of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
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(ʺNPDESʺ) permitting program established by the Clean Water Act in 1972.
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Some have criticized the EPA for this approach. They argue that like ballast
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water in ships,5 water transfers can move harmful pollutants from one body of
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water to another, potentially putting local ecosystems, economies, and public
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health at risk. While acknowledging these concerns, the EPA has held fast to its
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position. Indeed, following many lawsuits seeking to establish whether NPDES
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permits are required for water transfers, the EPA formalized its stance in 2008—
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See generally Nat. Res. Def. Council v. EPA, 808 F.3d 556, 561‐62 (2d Cir. 2015).
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more than three decades after the passage of the Clean Water Act—in a rule
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known as the ʺWater Transfers Rule.ʺ
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Shortly thereafter, several environmentalist organizations and state,
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provincial, and tribal governments challenged the Rule by bringing suit against
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the EPA and its Administrator in the United States District Court for the
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Southern District of New York. After many entities—governmental, tribal, and
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private—intervened on either side of the case, the district court (Kenneth M.
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Karas, Judge) granted summary judgment for the plaintiffs, vacating the Rule and
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remanding the matter to the EPA. In a thorough, closely reasoned, and detailed
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opinion, the district court concluded that although Chevron deference is
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applicable and requires the courts to defer to the EPA and uphold the Rule if it is
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reasonable, the Rule represented an unreasonable interpretation of the Clean
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Water Act, and was therefore invalid under the deferential two‐step framework
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for judicial review established in Chevron, U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense
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Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984). The court held that the Rule was contrary to the
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requirements established by the Act.
The Federal Government and the intervenor‐defendants timely appealed.
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Despite the district courtʹs herculean efforts and its careful and exhaustive
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explanation for the result it reached, we now reverse for the reasons set forth
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below.
At step one of the Chevron analysis, we conclude—as did the district
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court—that the Clean Water Act does not speak directly to the precise question
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of whether NPDES permits are required for water transfers, and that it is
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therefore necessary to proceed to Chevronʹs second step. At step two of the
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Chevron analysis, we conclude—contrary to the district court—that the Water
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Transfers Ruleʹs interpretation of the Clean Water Act is reasonable. We view
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the EPAʹs promulgation of the Water Transfers Rule here as precisely the sort of
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policymaking decision that the Supreme Court designed the Chevron framework
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to insulate from judicial second‐ (or third‐) guessing. It may well be that, as the
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plaintiffs argue, the Water Transfers Ruleʹs interpretation of the Clean Water Act
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is not the interpretation best designed to achieve the Actʹs overall goal of
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restoring and protecting the quality of the nationʹs waters. But it is nonetheless
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an interpretation supported by valid considerations: The Act does not require
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that water quality be improved whatever the cost or means, and the Rule
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preserves state authority over many aspects of water regulation, gives regulators
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flexibility to balance the need to improve water quality with the potentially high
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costs of compliance with an NPDES permitting program, and allows for several
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alternative means for regulating water transfers. While we might prefer an
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interpretation more consistent with what appear to us to be the most prominent
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goals of the Clean Water Act, Chevron tells us that so long as the agencyʹs
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statutory interpretation is reasonable, what we might prefer is irrelevant.
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BACKGROUND6
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The Clean Water Act and the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (ʺNPDESʺ) Permitting Program
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In 1972, following several events such as the 1969 ʺburningʺ of the
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Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio7 that increased national concern about
The parties and amici (we use the abbreviations here that we adopt for the remainder
of this opinion) have filed sixteen briefs taking opposing positions on the validity of the
Water Transfers Rule, as follows:
Anti‐Water Transfers Rule:
The States of New York, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Maine,
Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, and Washington, and the Province of
Manitoba (collectively, the ʺAnti‐Rule Statesʺ).
Leon G. Billings et al.
The Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida et al.
Catskill Mountains Chapter of Trout Unlimited, Inc. et al. (collectively,
the ʺSportsmen and Environmental Organization Plaintiffsʺ).
Pro‐Water Transfers Rule:
The State of California.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency and Gina
McCarthy (collectively, the ʺEPAʺ).
The American Farm Bureau Federation and Florida Farm Bureau
Federation (collectively, the ʺFarmer Amiciʺ).
National Hydropower Association et al. (collectively, the ʺHydropower
Amiciʺ).
The City of New York (ʺNYCʺ).
South Florida Water Management District.
Central Arizona Water Conservation District et al. (the ʺWater
Districtsʺ).
The States of Colorado, New Mexico, Alaska, Arizona (Department of
Water Resources), Idaho, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Texas,
Utah, and Wyoming (the ʺWestern States,ʺ and, together with the
Water Districts, the ʺWestern Partiesʺ).
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pollution of our nationʹs waters, Congress enacted the Federal Water Pollution
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Control Act (ʺFWPCAʺ) Amendments of 1972, 86 Stat. 816, as amended, 33 U.S.C.
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§ 1251 et seq., commonly known as the Clean Water Act (sometimes hereinafter
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the ʺActʺ or the ʺCWAʺ). Congressʹs principal objective in passing the Act was
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ʺto restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the
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Nationʹs waters.ʺ 33 U.S.C. § 1251(a). Congress also envisioned that the Actʹs
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passage would enable ʺthe discharge of pollutants into the navigable waters [to]
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be eliminated by 1985.ʺ Id. § 1251(a)(1). Although time has proven this
9
projection to have been over‐optimistic at best, it is our understanding that the
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Act has succeeded to a significant degree in cleaning up our nationʹs waters.
The Act ʺprohibits ʹthe discharge of any pollutant by any personʹ unless
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done in compliance with some provision of the Act.ʺ S. Fla. Water Mgmt. Dist. v.
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Miccosukee Tribe, 541 U.S. 95, 102 (ʺMiccosukeeʺ) (quoting 33 U.S.C. § 1311(a)). The
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statute defines the discharge of a pollutant as ʺany addition of any pollutant to
15
navigable waters from any point source,ʺ8 33 U.S.C. § 1362(12)(A), where
See, e.g., Michael Rotman, Cuyahoga River Fire, Cleveland Historical,
http://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/63#.V0XS7eRcjRs (last visited July 18, 2016),
archived at https://perma.cc/5VVP‐TTAY.
8 A ʺpoint sourceʺ is ʺany discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, including but
not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container,
rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft,
7
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ʺnavigable watersʺ means ʺthe waters of the United States, including the
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territorial seas,ʺ id. § 1362(7). The principal provision under which such a
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discharge may be allowed is Section 402, which establishes the ʺNational
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Pollutant Discharge Elimination Systemʺ (ʺNPDESʺ) permitting program. 33
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U.S.C. § 1342. With narrow exceptions not relevant here, a party must acquire an
6
NPDES permit in order to discharge a specified amount of a specified pollutant.
7
See id.; Miccosukee, 541 U.S. at 102. Thus, without an NPDES permit, it is
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unlawful for a party to discharge a pollutant into the nationʹs navigable waters.
ʺ[B]y setting forth technology‐based effluent limitations and, in certain
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cases, additional water quality based effluent limitations[, ]the NPDES permit
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ʹdefines, and facilitates compliance with, and enforcement of, a preponderance of
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a dischargerʹs obligations under the [Act].ʹʺ Waterkeeper Alliance, Inc. v. EPA, 399
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F.3d 486, 492 (2d Cir. 2005) (third brackets in original) (quoting EPA v. California
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ex rel. State Water Res. Control Bd., 426 U.S. 200, 205 (1976)). Noncompliance with
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an NPDES permitʹs conditions is a violation of the Clean Water Act. 33 U.S.C.
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§ 1342(h). Once an NPDES permit has been issued, the EPA, states, and citizens
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can bring suit in federal court to enforce it. See id. §§ 1319(a)(3), 1365(a).
from which pollutants are or may be discharged,ʺ other than in the case of ʺagricultural
stormwater discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture.ʺ 33 U.S.C.
§ 1362(14).
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The Act envisions ʺcooperative federalismʺ in the management of the
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nationʹs water resources. See, e.g., New York v. United States, 505 U.S. 144, 167
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(1992) (referring to the Act as an example of ʺcooperative federalismʺ); Arkansas
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v. Oklahoma, 503 U.S. 91, 101 (1992) (the Act ʺanticipates a partnership between
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the States and the Federal Governmentʺ). Reflecting that approach, states
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typically control the NPDES permitting programs as they apply to waters within
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their borders, subject to EPA approval. See 33 U.S.C. §§ 1314(i)(2), 1342(b)‐(c).9
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The Act also preserves statesʹ ʺprimary responsibilities and rightsʺ to abate
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pollution, id. § 1251(b), including their traditional prerogatives to ʺplan the
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development and use (including restoration, preservation, and enhancement)
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of . . . water resources,ʺ id., and to ʺallocate quantities of water within [their]
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jurisdiction,ʺ id. § 1251(g),10 subject to the federal floor on environmental
The EPA has authorized forty‐six states and the U.S. Virgin Islands to implement the
NPDES program. NPDES State Program Information, EPA,
https://www.epa.gov/npdes/npdes‐state‐program‐information (last updated Feb. 19,
2016; last visited July 18, 2016), archived at https://perma.cc/7M4V‐469F.
10 The Actʹs statement regarding the preservation of statesʹ water‐allocation authority
was added by the Clean Water Act of 1977, also known as the ʺ1977 Amendmentsʺ to
the Act. See Pub L. No. 95‐217, § 5(a), 91 Stat. 1566, 1567 (codified as amended at 33
U.S.C. § 1251(g)).
9
16
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1
protection set by the Act and regulations promulgated thereunder by the EPA,
2
see Nat. Res. Def. Council v. EPA, 808 F.3d 556, 580 (2d Cir. 2015).
3
Water Transfers and the Water Transfers Rule11
4
According to EPA regulations, a ʺwater transferʺ is ʺan activity that
5
conveys or connects waters of the United States without subjecting the
6
transferred water to intervening industrial, municipal, or commercial use.ʺ
7
40 C.F.R. § 122.3(i). Water transfers take a variety of forms. A transfer may be
8
accomplished, for example, through artificial tunnels and channels, or natural
9
streams and water bodies; and through active pumping or passive direction.
10
There are thousands of water transfers currently in place in the United States,
11
including at least sixteen major diversion projects west of the Mississippi River.
12
Many of the largest U.S. cities draw on water transfers to bring drinkable water
13
to their residents. The City of New Yorkʹs ʺwater supply system . . . relies on
14
transfers of water among its [nineteen] collecting reservoirs. The City provides
15
approximately 1.2 billion gallons of . . . water a day to nine million people—
16
nearly half of the population of New York State.ʺ Letter Dated August 7, 2006,
In this section, we refer to the contents of various documents supplied by the parties
and amici. This information was not admitted into evidence in any judicial proceeding.
We think, though, that it is at least plausible, and that even when treated as part of the
argument, it supplies a general picture of the factual background of this appeal against
which our legal conclusions may better be understood.
11
17
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from Mark D. Hoffer, General Counsel, City of New York Department of
2
Environmental Protection to EPA, at 1, J.A. at 331.
The parties and amici tell us that water transfers are of special significance
3
4
in the Western United States. Because much precipitation in the West falls as
5
snow, water authorities there must capture water when and where the snow falls
6
and melts, typically in remote and sparsely populated areas, and then transport
7
it to agricultural and urban sites where it is most needed. See Western States Br.
8
1‐2; see also State of California Amicus Br. 16 n.5. Colorado, for example, engages
9
in over forty interbasin diversions in order to serve the Stateʹs water needs. See
10
Letter Dated July 17, 2006, from Brian N. Nazarenus, Chair, Colorado Water
11
Quality Control Commission, to Water Docket, EPA, at 1, J.A. at 320. California
12
uses the ʺCalifornia State Water Project,ʺ a complex water delivery system based
13
on interbasin transfers from Northern California to Southern California, to serve
14
the water needs of 25 million of its 37 million residents. See State of California
15
Amicus Br. 3‐10. Water transfers are also obviously crucial to agriculture,
16
conveying water to enormously important farming regions such as the Central
17
and Imperial Valleys of California, Weld and Larimer Counties in Colorado, the
18
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Snake River Valley of Idaho, and the Yakima Valley of Washington. See Water
2
Districts Br. 16‐19.
At the same time, though, water transfers, like ballast water in ships, see
3
4
generally Nat. Res. Def. Council, 808 F.3d at 561‐62, can move pollutants from one
5
body of water to another, potentially endangering ecosystems, portions of the
6
economy, and public health near the receiving water body—and possibly
7
beyond. Despite these risks, for many years the EPA has taken a passive
8
approach to regulating water transfers, effectively exempting them from the
9
NPDES permitting system. The States have also generally adopted a hands‐off
10
policy.12
During the 1990s and 2000s, prior to its codification in the Water Transfers
11
12
Rule, the EPAʹs position was challenged by, among others, environmentalist
13
groups, which filed several successful lawsuits asserting that NPDES permits
14
were required for some specified water transfers. See, e.g., Catskill Mountains
15
Chapter of Trout Unlimited, Inc. v. City of New York, 451 F.3d 77 (2d Cir. 2006)
16
(ʺCatskill IIʺ), cert. denied, 549 U.S. 1252 (2007); N. Plains Res. Council v. Fid. Expl. &
17
Dev. Co., 325 F.3d 1155 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 124 S. Ct. 434 (2003); Catskill
Pennsylvania is the only NPDES permitting authority that regularly issues NPDES
permits for water transfers. See Water Transfers Rule, 73 Fed. Reg. at 33,699 pt. II.
12
19
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Mountains Chapter of Trout Unlimited, Inc. v. City of New York, 273 F.3d 481 (2d Cir.
2
2001) (ʺCatskill Iʺ); see also Dubois v. U.S. Depʹt of Agric., 102 F.3d 1273 (1st Cir.
3
1996), cert. denied sub nom. Loon Mountain Recreation Corp. v. Dubois, 521 U.S. 1119
4
(1997). None of these decisions classified the EPAʹs views on the regulation of
5
water transfers as sufficiently formal to warrant Chevron deference. See, e.g.,
6
Catskill II, 451 F.3d at 82 (declining to apply Chevron deference framework);
7
Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 491 (same).
In response, the EPA took steps to formalize its position. In August 2005,
8
9
the EPAʹs Office of General Counsel and Office of Water issued a legal
10
memorandum written by then‐EPA General Counsel Ann R. Klee (the ʺKlee
11
Memorandumʺ) that argued that Congress did not intend for water transfers to
12
be subject to the NPDES permitting program. The EPA proposed a formal rule
13
incorporating this interpretation on June 7, 2006, 71 Fed. Reg. 32,887, and then,
14
following notice‐and‐comment rulemaking proceedings, on June 13, 2008,
15
adopted a final rule entitled ʺNational Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
16
(NPDES) Water Transfers Ruleʺ (the ʺWater Transfers Ruleʺ), 73 Fed. Reg. 33,697‐
17
708 (June 13, 2008) (codified at 40 C.F.R. § 122.3(i)).
18
The Water Transfers Ruleʹs summary states:
20
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EPA is issuing a regulation to clarify that water transfers are not
subject to regulation under the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permitting program. This rule defines
water transfers as an activity that conveys or connects waters of the
United States without subjecting the transferred water to
intervening industrial, municipal, or commercial use. This rule
focuses exclusively on water transfers and does not affect any other
activity that may be subject to NPDES permitting requirements.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Id. at 33,697.
The Rule states that water transfers ʺdo not require NPDES permits
10
11
because they do not result in the ʹadditionʹ of a pollutant.ʺ13 Id. at 33,699. No
12
NPDES permit is required if ʺthe water being conveyed [is] a water of the U.S.
13
prior to being discharged to the receiving waterbodyʺ and the water is
14
transferred ʺfrom one water of the U.S. to another water of the U.S.ʺ14 Id.
The Rule added a new subsection to 40 C.F.R. § 122.3, which lists the pollutant
discharges that are exempted from NPDES permitting. The new subsection provides:
Discharges from a water transfer. Water transfer means an activity that
conveys or connects waters of the United States without subjecting the
transferred water to intervening industrial, municipal, or commercial use.
This exclusion does not apply to pollutants introduced by the water
transfer activity itself to the water being transferred.
13
40 C.F.R. § 122.3(i).
14 ʺWaters of the U.S.ʺ are defined for purposes of the NPDES program in 40 C.F.R.
§ 122.2, but without addressing what precisely is within the scope of the term, Water
Transfers Rule, 73 Fed. Reg. at 33,699 n.2. In 2015, the EPA and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers adopted a new rule modifying the definition of ʺwaters of the United States.ʺ
Clean Water Rule: Definition of ʺWaters of the United States,ʺ 80 Fed. Reg. 37,054,
21
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(footnote omitted). Thus, even if a water transfer conveys waters in which
2
pollutants are present, it does not result in an ʺadditionʺ to ʺthe waters of the
3
United States,ʺ because the pollutant is already present in ʺthe waters of the
4
United States.ʺ Under the EPAʹs view, an ʺadditionʺ of a pollutant under the Act
5
occurs only ʺwhen pollutants are introduced from outside the waters being
6
transferred.ʺ Id. at 33,701. On appeal—but not in the Water Transfers Rule
7
itself—the EPA characterizes this interpretation of Section 402 of the Clean Water
8
Act as embracing what is often referred to as the ʺunitary‐watersʺ reading of the
9
statutory language, see EPA Br. 15‐16, 54, which we will discuss further below.
In the Water Transfers Rule, the EPA justified its interpretation of the Act
10
11
in an explanation spanning nearly four pages of the Federal Register, touching
12
on the text of Section 402, the structure of the Act, and pertinent legislative
13
history. See Water Transfers Rule, 73 Fed. Reg. at 33,700‐03. The EPA explained
14
that its ʺholistic approach to the textʺ of the statute was ʺneeded here in
15
particular because the heart of this matter is the balance Congress created
37,055‐37,056 (June 29, 2015). ʺThat rule is currently stayed nationwide, pending
resolution of claims that the rule is arbitrary, capricious, and contrary to law.ʺ U.S.
Army Corps of Engʹrs v. Hawkes Co., 136 S. Ct. 1807, 1812 n.1 (2016) (citing In re EPA, 803
F.3d 804, 807‐09 (6th Cir. 2015)). Regardless of how expansively the term is interpreted,
we would still be faced with the question of whether the EPA could permissibly exempt
from NPDES permitting the transfer of water from one ʺwater of the U.S.ʺ to another
ʺwater of the U.S.ʺ
22
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between federal and State oversight of activities affecting the nationʹs waters.ʺ
2
Id. at 33,701. The agency also responded to a wide variety of public comments on
3
the proposed Rule. See id. at 33,703‐06.
4
District Court Proceedings
5
On June 20, 2008, a group of environmental conservation and sporting
6
organizations filed a complaint against the EPA and its Administrator (then
7
Stephen L. Johnson, now Gina McCarthy) in the United States District Court for
8
the Southern District of New York. The States of New York, Connecticut,
9
Delaware, Illinois, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, and Washington, and
10
the Province of Manitoba, Canada (collectively, the ʺAnti‐Rule Statesʺ) did the
11
same on October 2, 2008. In their complaints, the plaintiffs requested that the
12
district court hold unlawful and set aside the Water Transfers Rule pursuant to
13
Section 706(2) of the Administrative Procedure Act (the ʺAPAʺ), 5 U.S.C. §
14
706(2).15 In October 2008, the district court consolidated the two cases and
15
granted a motion by the City of New York to intervene in support of the
16
defendants.
The Anti‐Rule States also sought a declaratory judgment pursuant to the Declaratory
Judgment Act, 28 U.S.C. § 2201(a).
15
23
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At about the same time these actions were filed, five parallel petitions for
2
review of the Water Transfers Rule were filed in the First, Second, and Eleventh
3
Circuits. On July 22, 2008, the United States Judicial Panel on Multidistrict
4
Litigation consolidated these petitions and randomly assigned them to the
5
Eleventh Circuit. The Eleventh Circuit then consolidated a sixth petition for
6
review, and stayed all of these petitions pending its disposition of Friends of the
7
Everglades v. South Florida Water Management District, No. 07‐13829‐HH (11th Cir.)
8
(ʺFriends Iʺ), a separate but conceptually related case. The district court in the
9
case now before us granted the EPAʹs motion to stay the proceedings pending
10
the Eleventh Circuitʹs resolution of Friends I and the six consolidated petitions.
11
See Catskill Mountains Chapter of Trout Unlimited, Inc. v. EPA, 630 F. Supp. 2d 295,
12
307 (S.D.N.Y. 2009). In June 2009, the Eleventh Circuit issued a decision in
13
Friends I, 570 F.3d 1210 (11th Cir. 2009), rehʹg en banc denied, 605 F.3d 962 (2010),
14
cert. denied, 562 U.S. 1082, and cert. denied sub nom. Miccosukee Tribe v. S. Fla. Water
15
Mgmt. Dist., 562 U.S. 1082 (2010), according Chevron deference to, and upholding,
16
the Water Transfers Rule. Id. at 1227‐28. Then, on October 26, 2012, the Circuit
17
issued a decision dismissing the six consolidated petitions for lack of subject‐
18
matter jurisdiction under 33 U.S.C. § 1369(b)(1). Friends of the Everglades v. EPA,
24
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699 F.3d 1280, 1286, 1289 (11th Cir. 2012) (ʺFriends IIʺ), cert. denied, 134 S. Ct. 421,
2
and cert. denied sub nom. U.S. Sugar Corp. v. Friends of the Everglades, 134 S. Ct. 422,
3
and cert. denied sub nom. S. Fla. Water Mgmt. Dist. v. Friends of the Everglades, 134 S.
4
Ct. 422 (2013). The district court in the case at bar lifted the stay on December 17,
5
2012, the date the Eleventh Circuitʹs mandate in Friends II was issued.
On January 30, 2013, the district court granted multiple applications on
6
7
consent to intervene as plaintiffs and defendants under Federal Rule of Civil
8
Procedure 24. This added as intervenor‐plaintiffs the Miccosukee Tribe of
9
Indians of Florida, Friends of the Everglades, the Florida Wildlife Federation,
10
and the Sierra Club, and as intervenor‐defendants the States of Alaska, Arizona
11
(Department of Water Resources), Colorado, Idaho, Nebraska, Nevada, New
12
Mexico, North Dakota, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming, and various municipal water
13
providers from Western states. The parties filed multiple motions and cross‐
14
motions for summary judgment.
On March 28, 2014, the district court granted the plaintiffsʹ motions for
15
16
summary judgment and denied the defendantsʹ cross‐motions. Catskill
17
Mountains Chapter of Trout Unlimited, Inc. v. EPA, 8 F. Supp. 3d 500 (S.D.N.Y.
18
2014). At the first step of the Chevron analysis, the district court decided that the
25
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Clean Water Act is ambiguous as to whether Congress intended the NPDES
2
program to apply to water transfers. Id. at 518‐32. The district court then
3
proceeded to the second step of the Chevron analysis, at which it struck down the
4
Water Transfers Rule as an unreasonable interpretation of the Act. Id. at 532‐67.
5
The defendants and intervenor‐defendants other than the Northern
6
Colorado Water Conservancy District (hereinafter ʺthe defendantsʺ) timely
7
appealed.
DISCUSSION
8
ʺOn appeal from a grant of summary judgment in a challenge to agency
9
10
action under the APA, we review the administrative record and the district
11
courtʹs decision de novo.ʺ Bellevue Hosp. Ctr. v. Leavitt, 443 F.3d 163, 173‐74 (2d
12
Cir. 2006). We conclude that the Water Transfers Rule is a reasonable
13
interpretation of the Clean Water Act and is therefore entitled to Chevron
14
deference. Accordingly, we reverse the judgment of the district court.
We evaluate challenges to an agencyʹs interpretation of a statute that it
15
16
administers within the two‐step Chevron deference framework. Lawrence + Memʹl
17
Hosp. v. Burwell, 812 F.3d 257, 264 (2d Cir. 2016). At Chevron Step One, we ask
18
ʺwhether Congress has directly spoken to the precise question at issue. If the
26
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intent of Congress is clear, that is the end of the matter; for the court, as well as
2
the agency, must give effect to the unambiguously expressed intent of Congress.ʺ
3
Chevron, 467 U.S. at 842‐43. If the statutory language is ʺsilent or ambiguous,ʺ
4
however, we proceed to Chevron Step Two, where ʺthe question for the court is
5
whether the agencyʹs answer is based on a permissible construction of the
6
statuteʺ at issue. Id. at 843. If it is—i.e., if it is not ʺarbitrary, capricious, or
7
manifestly contrary to the statute,ʺ id. at 844—we will accord deference to the
8
agencyʹs interpretation of the statute so long as it is supported by a reasoned
9
explanation, and ʺso long as the construction is ʹa reasonable policy choice for the
10
agency to make,ʹʺ Natʹl Cable & Telecomms. Assʹn v. Brand X Internet Servs., 545
11
U.S. 967, 986 (2005) (ʺBrand Xʺ) (quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at 845).
This framework has been fashioned as a means for the proper resolution of
12
13
administrative‐law disputes that involve all three branches of the Federal
14
Government, seriatim.
First, the Legislative Branch, Congress, passes a bill that reflects its
15
16
judgment on the issue—in the case before us, the Clean Water Act. After the
17
head of the Executive Branch, the President, signs that bill, it becomes the law of
18
the land.
27
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Second, the Executive Branch, if given the authority to do so by legislation,
1
2
may address the issue through its authorized administrative agency or agencies,
3
typically although not necessarily by regulation—in this case the EPA through its
4
Water Transfer Rule. In doing so, the executive agency must defer to the
5
Legislative Branch by following the law or laws that it has enacted and that cover
6
the matter.
Only last, in case of a challenge to the Legislative Branchʹs authority to
7
8
pass the law, or to the Executive Branchʹs authority to administer it in the
9
manner that it has chosen to adopt, may we in the Judicial Branch become
10
involved in the process. When we do so, though, we are not only last, we are
11
least: We must defer both to the Legislative Branch by refraining from reviewing
12
Congressʹs legislative work beyond determining what the statute at issue means
13
and whether it is constitutional, and to the Executive Branch by using the various
14
principles of deference, including Chevron deference, which we conclude is
15
applicable in the case at bar. For us to decide for ourselves what in fact is the
16
preferable route for addressing the substantive problem at hand would be
17
directly contrary to this constitutional scheme. What we may think to be the best
28
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or wisest resolution of problems of water transfers and pollution emphatically
2
does not matter.
3
Abiding by this constitutional scheme, we begin at Chevron Step One. We
4
conclude, as did the district court, that Congress did not in the Clean Water Act
5
clearly and unambiguously speak to the precise question of whether NPDES
6
permits are required for water transfers. It is therefore necessary to proceed to
7
Chevron Step Two, under which we conclude that the EPAʹs interpretation of the
8
Act in the Water Transfers Rule represents a reasonable policy choice to which
9
we must defer. The question is whether the Clean Water Act can support the
10
EPAʹs interpretation, taking into account the full panoply of interpretive
11
considerations advanced by the parties. Ultimately, we conclude that the Water
12
Transfers Rule satisfies Chevronʹs deferential standard of review because it is
13
supported by a reasoned explanation that sets forth a reasonable interpretation of
14
the Act.
I.
15
Chevron Step One
16
At Chevron Step One, ʺthe [reviewing] court must determine ʹwhether
17
Congress has directly spoken to the precise question at issue. If the intent of
18
Congress is clear, that is the end of the matter; for the court, as well as the
29
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agency, must give effect to the unambiguously expressed intent of Congress.ʹʺ
2
City of Arlington v. FCC, 133 S. Ct. 1863, 1868 (2014) (quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at
3
842‐43). To determine whether a statute is ambiguous, we employ ʺtraditional
4
tools of statutory constructionʺ to ascertain if ʺCongress had an intention on the
5
precise question at issueʺ that ʺmust be given effect.ʺ Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843 n.9.
6
The issue before us at this point, then, is whether the Act plainly requires a
7
party to acquire an NPDES permit in order to make a water transfer. We agree
8
with the district court that the Clean Water Act does not clearly and
9
unambiguously speak to that question. We will begin, however, by addressing
10
the plaintiffsʹ argument that we previously held otherwise in Catskill I, 273 F.3d
11
481 (2d Cir. 2001), and Catskill II, 451 F.3d 77 (2d Cir. 2006).
A. Catskill I and Catskill II
12
The plaintiffs argue that this case can be resolved at Chevron Step One
13
14
because we held in Catskill I and Catskill II that the Clean Water Act
15
unambiguously requires NPDES permits for water transfers. We disagree with
16
the plaintiffsʹ reading of those decisions because our application there of the
17
deference standard set forth in Skidmore v. Swift & Co., 323 U.S. 134 (1944), and
18
United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218 (2001)—so‐called ʺSkidmoreʺ or
30
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ʺSkidmore/Meadʺ deference—and the reasoning underlying the decisions make
2
clear that we have not previously held that the statutory language at issue here is
3
unambiguous, such that we cannot defer under Chevron to the EPAʹs
4
interpretation of the Clean Water Act in the Water Transfers Rule.
In Catskill I, we held that that the City of New York16 violated the Clean
5
6
Water Act by transferring turbid water17 from the Schoharie Reservoir through
7
the Shandaken Tunnel into the Esopus Creek without an NPDES permit, because
8
the transfer of turbid water into the Esopus Creek was an ʺadditionʺ of a
9
pollutant. 273 F.3d at 489‐94. Following our remand in Catskill I, the district
10
court assessed a $5,749,000 civil penalty against New York City and ordered the
11
City to obtain a permit for the operation of the Shandaken Tunnel. The Cityʹs
12
appeal from that ruling was resolved in Catskill II, in which we reaffirmed the
13
holding of Catskill I. Catskill II, 451 F.3d at 79.
In both Catskill I and Catskill II, we applied the Skidmore deference standard
14
15
to informal policy statements by the EPA that interpreted the same provision of
In addition to the City of New York, the New York City Department of
Environmental Protection and its Commissioner at the time, Joel A. Miele, Sr., were also
defendants in Catskill I.
17 Turbid water is water carrying high levels of solids in suspension. Catskill I, 273 F.3d
at 488.
16
31
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the Act at issue here not to require NPDES permits for water transfers. See id. at
2
83‐84 & n.5 (noting that under Skidmore ʺ[w]e . . . defer to the agency
3
interpretation according to its ʹpower to persuadeʹʺ and ʺdeclin[ing] to defer to
4
the EPA[ʹs]ʺ informal interpretation of the CWA as expressed in the Klee
5
Memorandum (quoting Mead, 533 U.S. at 235)); Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 490‐91
6
(applying Skidmore to the EPAʹs position as expressed in informal policy
7
statements and litigation positions, and concluding that ʺwe do not find the
8
EPAʹs position to be persuasiveʺ). Skidmore instructs that ʺthe rulings,
9
interpretations and opinionsʺ of an agency may constitute ʺa body of experience
10
and informed judgment to which courts and litigants may properly resort for
11
guidance.ʺ Skidmore, 323 U.S. at 140. The appropriate level of deference
12
accorded to an agencyʹs interpretation of a statute under the Skidmore standard
13
depends on the interpretationʹs ʺpower to persuade,ʺ which in turn depends on,
14
inter alia, ʺthe thoroughness evident in its consideration, the validity of its
15
reasoning, [and] its consistency with earlier and later pronouncements.ʺ Id. This
16
ʺapproach has produced a spectrum of judicial responses, from great respect at
17
one end, to near indifference at the other.ʺ Mead, 533 U.S. at 228 (internal
18
citations omitted).18
18
The Supreme Courtʹs 2001 decision in Mead breathed new life into Skidmore, which as
32
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Although the Chevron and Skidmore deference standards differ in
1
2
application, they are similar in one respect: As with Chevron deference, we will
3
defer to the agencyʹs interpretation under the Skidmore standard only when the
4
statutory language at issue is ambiguous. See, e.g., Riegel v. Medtronic, Inc., 552
5
U.S. 312, 326 (2008) (suggesting that it is ʺunnecessaryʺ to engage in Skidmore
6
analysis if ʺthe statute itself speaks clearly to the point at issueʺ); Exxon Mobil
7
Corp. & Affiliated Cos. v. Commʹr of Internal Revenue, 689 F.3d 191, 200 n.13 (2d Cir.
8
2012) (explaining that Skidmore analysis applies to ʺan agencyʹs interpretation of
9
an ambiguous statuteʺ); Wong v. Doar, 571 F.3d 247, 258 (2d Cir. 2009)
10
(concluding that ʺCongress did not speak directly to the issueʺ before proceeding
11
to apply Skidmore deference); see also Gen. Dynamics Land Sys., Inc. v. Cline, 540
12
U.S. 581, 600 (2004) (ʺ[D]eference to [an agencyʹs] statutory interpretation is
13
called for only when the devices of judicial construction have been tried and
14
found to yield no clear sense of congressional intent.ʺ); High Sierra Hikers Assʹn v.
one court recently put it, ʺhas had a rough go of it ever since the birth of Chevron. Like
the figurative older child neglected in the wake of a new siblingʹs arrival, in 1984
Skidmore was relegated to the status of an administrative law sideshow while the courts
fawned over Chevron.ʺ Angiotech Pharmaceuticals Inc. v. Lee, ‐‐‐ F. Supp.3d ‐‐‐, No. 1:15‐
cv‐1673, 2016 WL 3248352, at *4, 2016 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 75662, at *13 (E.D. Va. June 8,
2016) (Ellis, J.). Remarkably, ʺby the age of just three and a half years, courts had cited
Chevron over six hundred times, and by the time Chevron turned sixteen,ʺ a year before
Mead, ʺsome were ready to declare Skidmore dead altogether.ʺ Id. (collecting cases and
secondary sources).
33
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Blackwell, 390 F.3d 630, 638 (9th Cir. 2004) (ʺIf the statute is clear and
2
unambiguous, no deference is required and the plain meaning of Congress will
3
be enforced.ʺ). As commentators have noted, although the Supreme Court has
4
not explicitly stated ʺthat Skidmore necessarily includes a ʹstep oneʹ inquiry along
5
the lines of Chevron [S]tep [O]ne[,] . . . in practice, Skidmore generally does include
6
a ʹstep one,ʹʺ in which a court ʺfirst review[s] the statute for a plain meaning [to]
7
determin[e] [whether] the statute [is] ambiguous.ʺ Kristin E. Hickman &
8
Matthew D. Krueger, In Search of the Modern Skidmore Standard, 107 COLUM. L.
9
REV. 1235, 1280 (2007) (collecting cases).
But as the dissent correctly notes, see Dissent at 21‐22, it does not follow
10
11
that a particular application of the Skidmore framework implies a threshold
12
conclusion that the relevant statutory language is ambiguous. Although a court
13
could first conclude that the text is unambiguous—and therefore that Skidmore
14
deference is inappropriate or unnecessary19—it could instead engage in Skidmore
15
analysis without answering this threshold question by considering the statutory
16
text as one of several factors relevant to determining whether the agency
Skidmore deference would be inappropriate with respect to an agency interpretation
that is inconsistent with unambiguous statutory text. But with respect to an agency
interpretation consistent with the unambiguous text, Skidmore deference would simply
be unnecessary.
19
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interpretation has the ʺpower to persuade.ʺ Skidmore, 323 U.S. at 140. Yet even
2
under this approach, courts will not rely on agency interpretations that are
3
inconsistent with unambiguous statutory language. See, e.g., EEOC v. Arabian
4
American Oil, 499 U.S. 244, 257 (1991) (declining to rely on an agency
5
interpretation that ʺlack[ed] support in the plain language of the statuteʺ after
6
considering the statutory language as one of several factors relevant to Skidmore
7
analysis).20 Thus, regardless of whether or not a court makes a threshold
8
ambiguity determination, ʺthe Skidmore standard implicitly replicates Chevronʹs
9
first step.ʺ Hickman & Krueger, supra, at 1247.
Our application of the Skidmore deference standard in Catskill I and
10
11
Catskill II makes clear that we did not decide and have not decided that the
12
statutory language at issue in this case—ʺaddition . . . to navigable watersʺ—is
13
unambiguous. Although we did not explicitly conclude in those cases that the
14
statutory text was ambiguous, we made clear that we did not intend to foreclose
The dissent stresses that Skidmore analysis is flexible and that the clarity of statutory
language is one factor among many in assessing an agency interpretationʹs power to
persuade. See Dissent at 24. Skidmore is not, however, so flexible that a court could
accord Skidmore deference to an agency interpretation inconsistent with unambiguous
statutory text. Any interpretation inconsistent with unambiguous statutory language
necessarily lacks persuasive power. See Whirlpool Corp. v. Marshall, 445 U.S. 1, 11 (1980)
(explaining that ʺ[a] regulation is [not] entitled to deferenceʺ under Skidmore if ʺit can be
said not to be a reasoned and supportable interpretation of the [statute]ʺ).
20
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the EPA from adopting a unitary‐waters reading of the Act (i.e., waters of the
2
United States means all of those waters rather than each of them) in a formal
3
rule; indeed, we stated in Catskill I that ʺ[i]f the EPAʹs position had been adopted
4
in a rulemaking or other formal proceeding, [Chevron] deference . . . might be
5
appropriate.ʺ Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 490‐91 & n.2. This statement implies that we
6
thought the relevant statutory text was at least possibly ambiguous.
The few references to ʺplain meaningʺ in Catskill I and Catskill II do not
7
8
compel a different conclusion. The crucial interpretive question framed by
9
Catskill I—which we identified as the ʺcruxʺ of the appeal—was ʺthe meaning of
10
ʹaddition,ʹ which the Act does not define.ʺ Id. at 486. As the dissent points out,
11
see Dissent at 25‐27, we concluded in Catskill I that, based on the ʺplain meaningʺ
12
of that term, the transfer of turbid water resulted in ʺan ʹadditionʹ of a ʹpollutantʹ
13
from a ʹpoint sourceʹ[21] . . . to a ʹnavigable water.ʹʺ Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 492.22 We
See supra note 8 for the definition of ʺpoint sourceʺ contained it 33 U.S.C. § 1362(14).
In Catskill I, we also discussed the so‐called ʺdams cases,ʺ National Wildlife Federation
v. Gorsuch, 693 F.2d 156 (D.C. Cir. 1982), and National Wildlife Federation v. Consumers
Power Co., 862 F.2d 580 (6th Cir. 1988). In these opinions, the District of Columbia and
Sixth Circuits deferred to the EPAʹs position that water released back into the same
surrounding water from which it was taken is not an ʺadditionʺ to navigable waters
under the CWA, even though the water so released contained material that either was
or could be considered a pollutant. Gorsuch, 693 F.2d at 174‐75, 183; Consumers Power,
862 F.2d at 584‐87, 589. We noted that our definition of ʺadditionʺ was consistent with
the holdings in the dams cases, because ʺ[i]f one takes a ladle of soup from a pot, lifts it
21
22
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do not, however, think that by referring to the ʺplain meaningʺ of ʺadditionʺ in
2
Catskill I we were holding that the broader statutory phrase ʺaddition . . . to
3
navigable watersʺ unambiguously referred to a collection of individual ʺnavigable
4
watersʺ—such that the term ʺto navigable watersʺ could possibly mean only ʺto a
5
navigable waterʺ or ʺto any navigable water,ʺ and not to ʺnavigable watersʺ in the
6
collective singular (i.e., ʺall the qualifying navigable waters viewed as a single,
7
ʹunitaryʹ entityʺ). Nowhere in Catskill I did we state that ʺnavigable watersʺ or
8
the broader phrase ʺaddition . . . to navigable watersʺ could bear only one
9
meaning based on the unambiguous language contained in the statute. Such a
10
statement would have been inconsistent with our acknowledgment that Chevron
11
deference might be owed to a more formal agency interpretation.
Nor did we make any such statement in Catskill II. There, we began by
12
13
succinctly summarizing Catskill I as ʺconcluding that the discharge of water
above the pot, and pours it back into the pot, one has not ʹaddedʹ soup or anything else
to the pot.ʺ Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 492. We explained that Catskill I was factually
distinguishable from those cases because it involved the discharge of water from one
distinct body of water (the Schoharie Reservoir) into another (the Esopus Creek). Id. at
491‐92. Gorsuch and Consumers Power have no bearing on the meaning of the term
ʺnavigable watersʺ because the discharges at issue in those cases would not constitute
ʺaddition[s] . . . to navigable watersʺ either under a unitary‐waters theory (because the
potential pollutants in the dams cases were already within the navigable waters) or a
non‐unitary‐waters theory (because those potential pollutants were not transferred
from one navigable water body to another). These two cases therefore have no bearing
on the outcome of this appeal.
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containing pollutants from one distinct water body into another is an ʹaddition of
2
[a] pollutantʹ under the CWA.ʺ Catskill II, 451 F.3d at 80 (brackets in original)
3
(citing Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 491‐93). We then again rejected the Cityʹs arguments
4
in favor of reconsidering Catskill I, including its argument in favor of the
5
ʺunitary‐water theory of navigable waters,ʺ essentially for the reasons stated in
6
Catskill I—most importantly, that these arguments ʺsimply overlook[ed]ʺ the
7
ʺplain languageʺ and ʺordinary meaningʺ of the term ʺaddition.ʺ Id. at 81‐84. We
8
also noted that in the then‐recent Miccosukee decision, the Supreme Court noted
9
the existence of the unitary‐waters theory and raised possible arguments against
10
it, providing further support for our rejection of the theory in Catskill I. Catskill
11
II, 451 F.3d at 83 (citing Miccosukee, 541 U.S. at 105‐09). Nowhere did we state
12
that the phrase ʺaddition . . . to navigable watersʺ was unambiguous such that it
13
would preclude Chevron deference in the event that the EPA adopted a formal
14
rule. We held only that the EPAʹs position, as expressed in an informal
15
interpretation, was unpersuasive under the Skidmore framework. Id. at 83 & n.5
16
(noting that under Skidmore ʺ[w]e . . . defer to the agency interpretation according
17
to its ʹpower to persuadeʹʺ and ʺdeclin[ing] to defer to the EPAʺ under that
18
standard (quoting Mead, 533 U.S. at 235)).
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The best interpretation of Catskill I and Catskill II, we think, is that those
1
2
decisions set forth what those panels saw as the most persuasive reading of the
3
phrase ʺaddition . . . to navigable watersʺ in light of how the word ʺadditionʺ is
4
plainly and ordinarily understood. Catskill I and Catskill II did not hold that
5
ʺaddition . . . to navigable watersʺ could bear only one meaning, such that the
6
EPA could not interpret the phrase differently in an interpretive rule. Therefore,
7
as the district court concluded, neither Catskill I nor Catskill II requires us to
8
resolve this appeal at Chevron Step One.
B. Statutory Text, Structure, and Purpose
9
Having determined that the meaning of the relevant provision of the Clean
10
11
Water Act has not been resolved by prior case law, we turn to the overall statute
12
and its context. In evaluating whether Congress has directly spoken to whether
13
NPDES permits are required for water transfers, we employ the ʺtraditional tools
14
of statutory construction.ʺ Li v. Renaud, 654 F.3d 376, 382 (2d Cir. 2011) (quoting
15
Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843 n.9). We examine the statutory text, structure, and
16
purpose as reflected in its legislative history. See id. If the statutory text is
17
ambiguous, we also examine canons of statutory construction. See Lawrence +
18
Memʹl Hosp., 812 F.3d at 264; see also Am. Farm Bureau Fedʹn v. EPA, 792 F.3d 281,
39
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301 (3d Cir. 2015), cert. denied, 136 S. Ct. 1246 (2016); Heino v. Shinseki, 683 F.3d
2
1372, 1378 (Fed. Cir. 2012); EEOC v. Seafarers Intʹl Union, 394 F.3d 197, 203 (4th
3
Cir. 2005).
1. Statutory text and structure.
4
ʺAs with any question of statutory interpretation, we begin with the text of
5
6
the statute to determine whether the language at issue has a plain and
7
unambiguous meaning.ʺ Louis Vuitton Malletier S.A. v. LY USA, Inc., 676 F.3d 83,
8
108 (2d Cir. 2012). The statutory language at issue is found in Sections 301, 402,
9
and 502 of the Clean Water Act. Section 301(a) states that ʺ[e]xcept as in
10
compliance with [the Act], the discharge of any pollutant by any person shall be
11
unlawful.ʺ 33 U.S.C. § 1311(a). Section 402(a)(1) states that the EPA may issue an
12
NPDES permit allowing the ʺdischarge of any pollutant, or combination of
13
pollutants, notwithstanding [Section 301(a)],ʺ so long as the discharge meets
14
certain requirements specified by the Clean Water Act and the permit. See id.
15
§ 1342(a)(1). Section 502 defines the term ʺdischarge of a pollutant,ʺ in relevant
16
part, as ʺany addition of any pollutant to navigable waters from any point
17
source.ʺ Id. § 1362(12). Section 502 also defines the term ʺnavigable watersʺ as
18
ʺthe waters of the United States, including the territorial seas.ʺ Id. § 1362(7). But
40
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nowhere do these provisions speak directly to the question of whether an
2
NPDES permit may be required for a water transfer.
Nor is the meaning of the relevant statutory text plain. The question, as
3
4
we have indicated above, is whether ʺaddition of any pollutant to navigable
5
watersʺ—or, ʺaddition of any pollutant to the waters of the United Statesʺ—refers
6
to all navigable waters, meaning all of the waters of the United States viewed as a
7
singular whole, or to individual navigable waters, meaning one of the waters of the
8
United States. The term ʺwatersʺ may be used in either sense: As the Eleventh
9
Circuit observed, ʺ[i]n ordinary usage ʹwatersʹ can collectively refer to several
10
different bodies of water such as ʹthe waters of the Gulf coast,ʹ or can refer to any
11
one body of water such as ʹthe waters of Mobile Bay.ʹʺ Friends I, 570 F.3d at 1223.
12
The Supreme Court too has noted that the phrase ʺ[w]aters of the United States,ʺ
13
as used in Section 502, is ʺin some respects ambiguous.ʺ Rapanos v. United States,
14
547 U.S. 715, 752 (2006) (internal quotation marks omitted) (emphasis removed).
15
The statutory text yields no clear answer to the question before us; it could
41
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support either of the interpretations proposed by the parties.23 Thus, based on
2
the text alone, we remain at sea.
Unfortunately, placing this statutory language in the broader context of the
3
4
Act as a whole does not help either. A statutory provisionʹs plain meaning may
5
be ʺunderstood by looking to the statutory scheme as a whole and placing the
6
particular provision within the context of that statute.ʺ Louis Vuitton, 676 F.3d at
7
108 (quoting Saks v. Franklin Covey Co., 316 F.3d 337, 345 (2d Cir. 2003)). ʺIt is a
8
fundamental canon of statutory construction that the words of a statute must be
9
read in their context and with a view to their place in the overall statutory
10
scheme.ʺ Sturgeon v. Frost, 136 S. Ct. 1061, 1070 (2016) (internal quotation marks
11
omitted) (quoting Roberts v. Sea‐Land Servs., Inc., 132 S. Ct. 1350, 1357 (2012)).
12
Examination of the other uses of the terms ʺnavigable watersʺ and ʺwatersʺ
13
elsewhere in the Clean Water Act does not establish that these terms can bear
14
only one meaning. The Clean Water Act sometimes regulates individual water
15
bodies and other times entire water systems.
We find the dissentʹs arguments relating to the ordinary meaning of the term
ʺadditionʺ to be unpersuasive. See Dissent at 9‐10. We agree that the ordinary meaning
of that term refers to an increase or an augmentation. But that dictionary definition
does not answer the question at issue here: whether such an increase or augmentation
occurs when a pollutant is moved from one body of water to another. In addressing
that question, we must consider the entire statutory phrase, ʺaddition . . . to navigable
waters,ʺ not simply the definition of the term ʺaddition.ʺ
23
42
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As the plaintiffs and the dissent point out, several other provisions in the
1
2
Clean Water Act suggest that ʺnavigable watersʺ refers to any of several
3
individual water bodies, specifically the Actʹs references to:
ʺthe navigable waters involved,ʺ 33 U.S.C. § 1313(c)(2)(A),
(c)(4);
ʺthose waters or parts thereof,ʺ id. § 1313(d)(1)(B);
ʺall navigable waters,ʺ id. § 1314(a)(2);
ʺany navigable waters,ʺ id. § 1314(f)(2)(F);
ʺthose waters within the Stateʺ and ʺall navigable waters in
such State,ʺ id. § 1314(l)(1)(A)‐(B);
ʺall navigable waters in such Stateʺ and ʺall navigable waters
of such State,ʺ id. § 1315(b)(1)(A)‐(B); and
ʺthe navigable waters within the jurisdiction of such State,ʺ
ʺnavigable waters within [the Stateʹs] jurisdiction,ʺ and ʺany of
the navigable waters,ʺ id. § 1342.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
But this pattern of usage does not establish that ʺnavigable watersʺ cannot ever
17
refer to all waters as a singular whole because it also suggests that when
18
Congress wants to make clear that it is using ʺnavigable watersʺ in a particular
19
sense, it can and sometimes does provide additional language as a beacon to
20
guide interpretation. Cf. Rapanos, 547 U.S. at 732‐33 (holding that ʺ[t]he use of the
21
definite article (ʹtheʹ) and the plural number (ʹwatersʹ)ʺ made clear that § 1362(7)
22
is limited to ʺfixed bodies of water,ʺ such as ʺstreams, . . . oceans, rivers, [and]
23
lakes,ʺ and does not extend to ʺordinarily dry channels through which water
43
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occasionally or intermittently flowsʺ).24 If Congress had thought about the
2
question and meant for Section 502(12) of the Clean Water Act to refer to
3
individual water bodies, it could have referred to something like ʺany addition of
4
any pollutant to a navigable water from any point source,ʺ or ʺany addition of any
5
pollutant to any navigable water from any point source.ʺ As the plaintiffs and the
6
dissent would have it, the phrases ʺaddition to navigable waters,ʺ ʺaddition to a
7
navigable water,ʺ and ʺaddition to any navigable waterʺ necessarily mean the
8
same thing, at least in the context of the Act. We do not disagree that the phrases
9
could be interpreted to have the same meaning, but we disagree that this
10
interpretation is clearly and unambiguously mandated in light of how the terms
11
ʺnavigable watersʺ and ʺwatersʺ are used in other sections of the Act.
We thus see nothing in the language or structure of the Act that indicates
12
13
that Congress clearly spoke to the precise question at issue: whether Congress
14
intended to require NPDES permits for water transfers.
Contrary to the dissentʹs suggestion, the Supreme Courtʹs holding in Rapanos does
not compel the conclusion that the statutory phrase ʺnavigable watersʺ is unambiguous
because that phrase, unlike the phrase addressed in Rapanos, is not limited by a definite
article. See Dissent at 6‐9.
24
44
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2. Statutory purpose and legislative history
1
2
Inasmuch as the statutory text, context, and structure have yielded no
3
definitive answer to the question before us, we conclude the first step of our
4
Chevron analysis by looking to whether Congressʹs purpose in enacting the Clean
5
Water Act establishes that the phrase ʺaddition . . . to navigable watersʺ can
6
reasonably bear only one meaning. See Gen. Dynamics, 540 U.S. at 600 (using
7
both statutory purpose and history at Chevron Step One). Beginning with the
8
name of the statute, it seems clear enough that the predominant goal of the Clean
9
Water Act is to ensure that our nationʹs waters are ʺclean,ʺ at least in the sense of
10
being reasonably free of pollutants. The Act itself states that its main objective is
11
ʺto restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the
12
Nationʹs waters.ʺ 33 U.S.C. § 1251(a). The plaintiffs and the dissent argue that
13
exempting water transfers from the NPDES permitting program could frustrate
14
the achievement of this goal by allowing unmonitored transfers of polluted
15
water from one water body to another. Cf. Catskill II, 451 F.3d at 81 (observing
16
that a unitary‐waters interpretation of navigable waters would allow for ʺthe
17
transfer of water from a heavily polluted, even toxic, water body to one that was
18
pristineʺ).
45
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As the Supreme Court has noted, however, ʺno law pursues its purpose at
1
2
all costs.ʺ Rapanos, 547 U.S. at 752. We see no reason to think that the Clean
3
Water Act is an exception. To the contrary, the Clean Water Act is ʺamong the
4
most complexʺ of federal statutes, and it ʺbalances a welter of consistent and
5
inconsistent goals,ʺ Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 494, establishing a complicated scheme
6
of federal regulation employing both federal and state implementation and
7
supplemental state regulation, see, e.g., 33 U.S.C. § 1251(g) (federal agencies must
8
cooperate with state and local governments to develop ʺcomprehensive
9
solutionsʺ for pollution ʺin concert with . . . managing water resourcesʺ). In this
10
regard, the Act largely preserves statesʹ traditional authority over water
11
allocation and use, while according the EPA a degree of policymaking discretion
12
and flexibility with respect to water quality standards—both of which might well
13
counsel against requiring NPDES permits for water transfers and instead in favor
14
of letting the States determine what administrative regimen, if any, applies to
15
water transfers. Accordingly, Congressʹs broad purposes and goals in passing
16
the Act do not alone establish that the Act unambiguously requires that water
17
transfers be subject to NPDES permitting.
46
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Even careful analysis of the Clean Water Actʹs legislative history does not
1
2
help us answer the interpretive question before us. Although we are generally
3
ʺreluctant to employ legislative history at step one of Chevron analysis,ʺ
4
legislative history is at times helpful in resolving ambiguity; for example, when
5
the ʺʹinterpretive clues [speak] almost unanimously,ʹ making Congressʹs intent
6
clear ʹbeyond reasonable doubt.ʹʺ Mizrahi v. Gonzales, 492 F.3d 156, 166 (2d Cir.
7
2007) (quoting Gen. Dynamics, 540 U.S. at 586, 590). But here Congress has not
8
left us a trace of a clue as to its intent. The more than 3,000‐page legislative
9
history of the Clean Water Act appears to be silent, or very nearly so, as to the
10
applicability of the NPDES permitting program to water transfers. See generally
11
Comm. on Envʹt. & Pub. Works, 95th Cong., 2d Sess., A Legislative History of the
12
Clean Water Act of 1977 & A Continuation of the Legislative History of the
13
Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1978); Comm. on Pub. Works, 93rd Cong.,
14
1st Sess., A Legislative History of the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
15
of 1972 (1973). As we noted in Catskill I, the legislative history does not speak to
16
the meaning of the term ʺadditionʺ standing alone, 273 F.3d at 493, suggesting
17
that the history is similarly silent as to the meaning of the broader phrase that
18
includes this term, ʺaddition . . . to navigable waters.ʺ
47
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Finally and tellingly, neither the parties nor amici have pointed us to any
1
2
legislative history that clearly addresses the applicability of the NPDES
3
permitting program to water transfers. What few examples from the legislative
4
history they have cited—such as the strengthening of the permit requirements in
5
Section 301(b)(1)(C) to include water quality‐based limits in addition to
6
technology‐based limitations, see William L. Andreen, The Evolution of Water
7
Pollution Control in the United States—State, Local, and Federal Efforts, 1789‐1972:
8
Part II, 22 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 215, 270, 275‐77 (2003), and broad aspirational
9
statements about the elimination of water pollution and the need to regulate
10
every point source by the report of the Senateʹs Environment and Public Works
11
Committee, S. Rep. No. 92‐414, at 3738, 3758 (1971), provide at most keyhole‐
12
view insights into Congressʹs intent. They do not speak to the issue before us
13
with the ʺhigh level of clarityʺ necessary to resolve the textual ambiguity before
14
us at Chevron Step One. Cohen v. JP Morgan Chase & Co., 498 F.3d 111, 120 (2d Cir.
15
2007). The question is whether Congress has ʺdirectly spoken,ʺ Chevron, 467 U.S.
16
at 842, to whether NPDES permits are required for water transfers—not whether
17
it has made a stray or oblique reference to that issue here and there.
48
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3. Canons of statutory construction
1
The traditional canons of statutory construction also provide no clear
2
3
answer to the question whether Congress intended that the NPDES permitting
4
system apply to water transfers.
5
First, the dissent asserts that the Water Transfers Rule violates the
6
principle that ʺʹ[w]here Congress explicitly enumerates certain exceptions to a
7
general prohibition, additional exceptions are not to be implied, in the absence of
8
evidence of contrary legislative intent,ʹʺ Hillman v. Maretta, 133 S. Ct. 1943, 1953
9
(2013) (quoting Andrus v. Glover Constr. Co., 446 U.S. 608, 616‐17 (1980)). See
10
Dissent at 12‐14. Contrary to the dissentʹs assertion, however, that canon of
11
construction is not applicable where, as here, the issue is not whether to create an
12
implied exception to a general prohibition, but the scope of the general
13
prohibition itself.25
The dissentʹs argument proceeds as follows: (1) the Act imposes a general ban on
ʺthe discharge of any pollutant,ʺ defined by Section 502 as ʺany addition . . . to
navigable watersʺ; (2) the Act specifies certain exemptions to the general ban; and (3)
the Water Transfers Rule must be rejected because it effectively creates an implied
exemption to the general ban on the discharge of pollutants. See Dissent at 12‐14. This
strikes us as decidedly circular: It presupposes that the scope of the general ban on the
discharge of pollutants, as defined by Section 502, extends to water transfers in order to
conclude that the Water Transfers Rule is an exemption from that general ban. This
argument, therefore, is unhelpful because it sidesteps the question at issue here—
whether ʺany addition . . . to navigable watersʺ is ambiguous.
25
49
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Second, the plaintiffs invoke the canon of construction that a ʺstatute
2
should be interpreted in a way that avoids absurd results.ʺ SEC v. Rosenthal, 650
3
F.3d 156, 162 (2d Cir. 2011) (quoting United States v. Venturella, 391 F.3d 120, 126
4
(2d Cir. 2004)). They again underscore their arguments concerning statutory
5
purpose in arguing that by allowing for the unpermitted transfer of polluted
6
water from one water body to another, the Water Transfers Rule is contrary to
7
the Actʹs principal stated objective: ʺto restore and maintain the chemical,
8
physical, and biological integrity of the Nationʹs waters.ʺ 33 U.S.C. § 1251(a).
9
Additionally, the plaintiffs argue that the Water Transfers Rule may undermine
10
the ability of downstream states to protect themselves from the pollution
11
generated by upstream states.
12
The simplicity of the plaintiffsʹ approach helps cloak their arguments with
13
considerable force. But we are ultimately not persuaded that they establish that
14
the Clean Water Act unambiguously forecloses the EPAʹs interpretation in the
15
Water Transfers Rule. Indeed, it is unclear to us how one can argue persuasively
16
that the Water Transfers Rule leads to a result so absurd that the result could not
17
possibly have been intended by Congress, while asserting at the same time that it
18
codifies the EPAʹs practice of not issuing NPDES permits that has prevailed for
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decades without Congressional course‐correction of any kind. In light of the
2
immense importance of water transfers, it seems more likely that Congress has
3
contemplated the very result that the plaintiffs argue is foreclosed by the Act,
4
and acquiesced in that result.
5
Furthermore, as the plaintiffs would have it, the EPA and the States could
6
not, consistent with the Clean Water Act, select any policy that does not improve
7
water quality as much as is possible. But the Clean Water Act is more flexible
8
than that. Far from establishing a maximalist scheme under which water quality
9
must be pursued at all costs, the Act leaves a considerable amount of
10
policymaking discretion in the hands of both the EPA and the States—entirely
11
understandably in light of its ʺwelter of consistent and inconsistent goals.ʺ
12
Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 494. We cannot say that the Act could not reasonably be
13
read to permit water transfers to be exempt from the NPDES permitting
14
program, in light of the possibility that other measures will do. Although the
15
tension between the Ruleʹs reading of the Act and the statuteʹs overall goal of
16
improving water quality casts some doubt on the reasonableness of the Rule, it
17
may nevertheless be understandable and permissible if it furthers other
18
objectives of the statute.
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We think that the legislative compromises embodied in the Act counsel
1
2
against the application of the absurdity canon here. We generally apply that
3
canon only ʺwhere the result of applying the plain language would be, in a
4
genuine sense, absurd, i.e., where it is quite impossible that Congress could have
5
intended the result and where the alleged absurdity is so clear as to be obvious to
6
most anyone.ʺ Pub. Citizen v. U.S. Depʹt of Justice, 491 U.S. 440, 470‐71 (1989)
7
(Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment) (citation omitted). Exempting water
8
transfers from the NPDES program does not, we conclude, lead directly to a
9
result so absurd it could not possibly have been contemplated by Congress.
As to the effect of the Rule on downstream states, even in the absence of
10
11
NPDES permitting for water transfers, the States can seek to protect themselves
12
against polluted water transfers through other means—for example, through
13
filing a common‐law nuisance or trespass lawsuit in the polluting stateʹs courts,
14
see, e.g., Intʹl Paper Co. v. Ouellette, 479 U.S. 481, 497‐98 (1987)—even if the
15
protections provided by such lawsuits are less robust than those that would be
16
available through the NPDES permitting programʹs application to transfers.26
17
The inconsistency of the Water Transfers Rule with the Clean Water Actʹs
Although common‐law nuisance and trespass lawsuits may take a long time to work
through the court system, preliminary injunctions may be available in urgent cases.
26
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primary objective may be a strike against its reasonableness, but only one strike,
2
which is not enough for the EPAʹs position to be ʺout.ʺ
Third, arguing to the contrary, the defendants and amicus curiae State of
3
4
California argue that we should reject the plaintiffsʹ preferred interpretation of
5
Section 402 of the Clean Water Act (i.e., that permits are required for water
6
transfers) based on a clear‐statement rule and principles of federalism derived
7
from the Supreme Courtʹs decisions in Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County
8
v. United States Army Corps of Engineers, 531 U.S. 159 (2001) (ʺSWANCCʺ), and
9
Rapanos, as well as the Tenth Amendment. If that were so, it would make our
10
task much easier. But we think it is incorrect. To the extent that SWANCC and
11
Rapanos establish a clear‐statement rule, it does not apply here.
12
In SWANCC, the Supreme Court addressed the ʺMigratory Bird Ruleʺ
13
issued by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (the ʺCorpsʺ) under which the Corps
14
asserted jurisdiction pursuant to Section 404(a) of the Clean Water Act to require
15
permits for the discharge of dredged or fill material into intrastate waters used as
16
habitat by migratory birds. SWANCC, 531 U.S. at 163‐64. The Rule applied even
17
to small, isolated ponds located entirely within a single state, such as those
18
located in the abandoned sand and gravel pit there at issue. See id. at 163‐65. The
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Court reasoned that, ʺ[w]here an administrative interpretation of a statute
2
invokes the outer limits of Congressʹ power, [it] expect[s] a clear indication that
3
Congress intended that result,ʺ and that ʺ[t]his concern is heightened where the
4
administrative interpretation alters the federal‐state framework by permitting
5
federal encroachment upon a traditional state power.ʺ Id. at 172‐73. Thus,
6
ʺwhere an otherwise acceptable construction of a statute would raise serious
7
constitutional problems, the Court will construe the statute to avoid such
8
problems unless such construction is plainly contrary to the intent of Congress.ʺ
9
Id. at 173 (quoting Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. v. Fla. Gulf Coast Bldg. & Constr.
10
Trades Council, 485 U.S. 568, 575 (1988)). The Supreme Court rejected the Corpsʹ
11
interpretation because (1) the Migratory Bird Rule ʺraise[d] significant
12
constitutional questionsʺ with respect to Congressʹs authority under the
13
Commerce Clause; (2) Congress had not clearly stated ʺthat it intended § 404(a)
14
to reach an abandoned sand and gravel pitʺ; and (3) the Corpsʹ interpretation of
15
Section 404(a) ʺwould result in a significant impingement of the Statesʹ
16
traditional and primary power over land and water use.ʺ Id. at 173‐74.
In Rapanos, a plurality of the Supreme Court rejected the EPAʹs
17
18
interpretation of the Clean Water Act as providing authority to regulate isolated
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wetlands lying near ditches or artificial drains that eventually empty into
2
ʺnavigable watersʺ because the wetlands are adjacent to ʺwaters of the United
3
States.ʺ Rapanos, 547 U.S. at 723‐24, 729, 739. The plurality rejected the
4
interpretation because it ʺwould authorize the Corps to function as a de facto
5
regulator of immense stretches of intrastate land,ʺ which was impermissible
6
because a ʺʹclear and manifestʹ statement from Congressʺ is required ʺto
7
authorize an unprecedented intrusionʺ into an area of ʺtraditional state
8
authorityʺ such as the regulation of land use. Id. at 738 (citation omitted). Citing
9
SWANCC, the Court also noted that ʺthe Corpsʹ interpretation stretches the outer
10
limits of Congressʹs commerce power and raises difficult questions about the
11
ultimate scope of that power,ʺ which further counseled in favor of requiring a
12
clear statement from Congress in order to authorize such jurisdiction. Id. (citing
13
SWANCC, 531 U.S. at 173).
The clear‐statement rule articulated in SWANCC and Rapanos does not
14
15
apply here. The case at bar presents no question regarding Congressʹs authority
16
under the Commerce Clause, inasmuch as it is undisputed that Congress has the
17
power to regulate navigable waters and to delegate its authority to do so.
18
SWANCC and Rapanos both involved attempts by the Army Corps of Engineers
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to extend the scope of the phrase ʺnavigable watersʺ to include areas not
2
traditionally understood to be such. They were therefore treated as attempts by
3
the Corps to stretch the limits of its delegated authority vis‐à‐vis the States.
4
Here, the EPA is not seeking to expand the universe of waters deemed to be
5
ʺnavigable.ʺ The question before us is not whether the EPA has the authority to
6
regulate water transfers; it is whether the EPA is using (or not using) that
7
authority in a permissible manner.
The Clean Water Act was designed to alter the federal‐state balance with
8
9
respect to the regulation of water quality. Congress passed the Act precisely
10
because it found inconsistent state‐by‐state regulation not up to the task of
11
restoring and maintaining the integrity of the nationʹs waters. See S. Rep. No. 95‐
12
370, at 1 (1977) (the Act is intended to be a ʺcomprehensive revision of national
13
water quality policyʺ). True, as the defendants point out, water allocation is an
14
area of traditional state authority. But again, we are concerned here not with
15
water allocation, but with water quality. We know of no authority or accepted
16
principle that would require a ʺclear statementʺ by Congress before the EPA
17
could adopt the plaintiffsʹ preferred interpretation of the Act.
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Fourth, and finally, several of the defendants raise the related argument
1
2
that requiring permits for water transfers under the plaintiffsʹ preferred
3
interpretation would pose a serious Tenth Amendment27 problem because it
4
would upset the traditional balance of federal and state power with respect to
5
water regulation. This, in turn, would violate the canon of constitutional
6
avoidance, which provides that if one of two competing statutory interpretations
7
ʺwould raise a multitude of constitutional problems, the other should prevail.ʺ
8
Clark v. Martinez, 543 U.S. 371, 380‐81 (2005); see also FCC v. Fox Television Stations,
9
Inc., 556 U.S. 502, 516 (2009) (ʺThe so‐called canon of constitutional avoidance is
10
an interpretive tool, counseling that ambiguous statutory language be construed
11
to avoid serious constitutional doubts.ʺ). These defendants argue that the EPAʹs
12
interpretation must prevail because it avoids this constitutional problem.
But the plaintiffsʹ proposed interpretation raises no Tenth Amendment
13
14
concerns that we can discern because it would not result in federal overreach into
15
statesʹ traditional authority to allocate water quantities. The Clean Water Actʹs
16
preservation of statesʹ water‐allocation authority ʺdo[es] not limit the scope of
17
water pollution controls that may be imposed on users who have obtained,
ʺThe powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited
by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.ʺ U.S. Const.
amend. X.
27
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pursuant to state law, a water allocation.ʺ PUD No. 1 of Jefferson Cty. v. Wash.
2
Depʹt of Ecology, 511 U.S. 700, 720 (1994). As we noted in Catskill II, the ʺflexibility
3
built into the [Act] and the NPDES permit scheme,ʺ which includes variances,
4
general permits, and the consideration of costs in setting effluent limitations,
5
ʺallow[s] federal authority over quality regulation and state authority over
6
quantity allocation to coexist without materially impairing either.ʺ28 451 F.3d at
7
85‐86. The resolution of this appeal is not dictated by a clear‐statement rule or
8
the Tenth Amendment, but rather by straightforward considerations of statutory
9
interpretation.
We conclude, then, that Congress did not in the Clean Water Act speak
10
11
directly to the question of whether NPDES permits are required for water
12
transfers.29 The Act is therefore silent or ambiguous as to this question, which
There is no reason to think that applying the NPDES program to water transfers
would turn the prior appropriation doctrine (ʺfirst in time, first in rightʺ) on its head, as
some of the defendants insist. See Western States Br. 31‐32. NPDES permits merely put
restrictions on water discharges, without changing priority or ownership rights.
29 The dissent asserts that in reaching this conclusion we are effectively construing
ʺnavigable watersʺ to mean all the navigable waters of the United States, collectively.
See Dissent at 6. Not so: By concluding that the phrase ʺaddition . . . to navigable
watersʺ is ambiguous for purposes of Chevron Step One, we are emphatically declining
to adopt any construction of the statute in the first instance. We are instead
acknowledging that Congress has left the task of resolving that ambiguity to the EPA by
delegating to that agency the authority ʺto make rules carrying the force of lawʺ to
which we must defer so long as they are reasonable. Mead, 533 U.S. at 226‐27.
28
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means that this case cannot be resolved by the Step One analysis under Chevron.
2
See also Friends I, 570 F.3d at 1227 (similarly concluding at Chevron Step One that
3
the statutory phrase ʺaddition . . . to navigable watersʺ is ambiguous).
4
Accordingly, we proceed to Step Two. See New York v. FERC, 783 F.3d 946, 954
5
(2d Cir. 2015).
II.
6
Chevron Step Two
At last, we reach the application of the second step of Chevron analysis,
7
8
upon which our decision to reverse the district courtʹs judgment turns. We
9
conclude that the EPAʹs interpretation of the Clean Water Act is reasonable and
10
neither arbitrary nor capricious. Although the Rule may or may not be the best
11
or most faithful interpretation of the Act in light of its paramount goal of
12
restoring and protecting the quality of U.S. waters, it is supported by several
13
valid arguments—interpretive, theoretical, and practical. And the EPAʹs
14
interpretation of the Act as reflected in the Rule seems to us to be precisely the
15
kind of policymaking decision that Chevron is designed to protect from overly
16
intrusive judicial review. As we have already pointed out, although we might
17
prefer a different rule more clearly guaranteed to reach the environmental
18
concerns underlying the Act, Chevron analysis requires us to recognize that our
19
preference does not matter. We conclude that the Water Transfers Rule satisfies
59
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Chevronʹs deferential standard of review, and, accordingly, we reverse the
2
judgment of the district court.
A. Legal Standard
3
The question for the reviewing court at Chevron Step Two is ʺwhether the
4
5
agencyʹs answer [to the interpretive question] is based on a permissible
6
construction of the statute.ʺ Mayo Found. for Med. Educ. & Research v. United
7
States, 562 U.S. 44, 54 (2011) (quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843). We will not
8
disturb an agency rule at Chevron Step Two unless it is ʺarbitrary or capricious in
9
substance, or manifestly contrary to the statute.ʺ Id. at 53 (quoting Household
10
Credit Servs., Inc. v. Pfennig, 541 U.S. 232, 242 (2004)); see also Lawrence + Memʹl
11
Hosp., 812 F.3d at 264. Generally, an agency interpretation is not ʺarbitrary,
12
capricious, or manifestly contrary to the statuteʺ if it is ʺreasonable.ʺ See Encino
13
Motorcars, LLC v. Navarro, 136 S. Ct. 2117, 2125 (2016) (ʺ[A]t [Chevronʹs] second
14
step the court must defer to the agencyʹs interpretation if it is ʹreasonable.ʹʺ
15
(quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at 844)); Mayo, 562 U.S. at 58 (ʺ[T]he second step of
16
Chevron . . . asks whether the [agencyʹs] rule is a ʹreasonable interpretationʹ of the
17
enacted text.ʺ (quoting Chevron, 467 U.S. at 844)); Lee v. Holder, 701 F.3d 931, 937
18
(2d Cir. 2012); Adams v. Holder, 692 F.3d 91, 95 (2d Cir. 2012). The agencyʹs view
19
need not be ʺthe only possible interpretation, nor even the interpretation deemed
60
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most reasonable by the courts.ʺ Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, Inc., 556 U.S. 208, 218
2
(2009) (emphasis in original). This approach ʺis premised on the theory that a
3
statuteʹs ambiguity constitutes an implicit delegation from Congress to the
4
agency to fill in the statutory gaps.ʺ FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp.,
5
529 U.S. 120, 159 (2000). When interpreting ambiguous statutory language
6
ʺinvolves difficult policy choices,ʺ deference is especially appropriate because
7
ʺagencies are better equipped to make [these choices] than courts.ʺ Brand X, 545
8
U.S. at 980.
ʺEven under this deferential standard, however, agencies must operate
9
10
within the bounds of reasonable interpretation,ʺ Michigan v. EPA, 135 S. Ct. 2699,
11
2707 (2015) (internal quotation marks omitted), and we therefore will not defer to
12
an agency interpretation if it is not supported by a reasoned explanation, see Vill.
13
of Barrington, Ill. v. Surface Transp. Bd., 636 F.3d 650, 660 (D.C. Cir. 2011). An
14
agency interpretation would surely be ʺarbitraryʺ or ʺcapriciousʺ if it were picked
15
out of a hat, or arrived at with no explanation, even if it might otherwise be
16
deemed reasonable on some unstated ground.
In the course of its Chevron Step Two analysis, the district court
17
18
incorporated the standard for evaluating agency action under APA § 706(2)(A)
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set forth in Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association v. State Farm Mutual
2
Automobile Insurance Company, 463 U.S. 29 (1983) (ʺState Farmʺ), a much stricter
3
and more exacting review of the agencyʹs rationale and decisionmaking process
4
than the Chevron Step Two standard. Under that section, a reviewing court may
5
set aside an agency action if it is ʺarbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or
6
otherwise not in accordance with law.ʺ 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(A). In State Farm, the
7
Supreme Court explained that under Section 706(2)(A),
8
9
10
11
12
13
an agency rule would be arbitrary and capricious if the agency has relied
on factors which Congress has not intended it to consider, entirely failed
to consider an important aspect of the problem, offered an explanation for
its decision that runs counter to the evidence before the agency, or is so
implausible that it could not be ascribed to a difference in view or the
product of agency expertise.
14
463 U.S. at 43. On appeal, the plaintiffs urge us to incorporate the State Farm
15
standard into our Chevron Step Two analysis, and to affirm the district courtʹs
16
vacatur of the Rule for essentially the same reasons stated by the court. While
17
we have great respect for the district courtʹs careful and searching analysis of the
18
EPAʹs rationale for the Water Transfers Rule, we conclude that it erred by
19
incorporating the State Farm standard into its Chevron Step Two analysis and
20
thereby applying too strict a standard of review. An agencyʹs initial
21
interpretation of a statutory provision should be evaluated only under the
62
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Chevron framework, which does not incorporate the State Farm standard. State
2
Farm review may be appropriate in a case involving a non‐interpretive rule or a
3
rule setting forth a changed interpretation of a statute; but that is not so in the
4
case before us.
As the Supreme Court, our Circuit, and other Courts of Appeals have
5
6
made reasonably clear, State Farm and Chevron provide for related but distinct
7
standards for reviewing rules promulgated by administrative agencies. See, e.g.,
8
Encino, 136 S. Ct. at 2125‐26; Judulang v. Holder, 132 S. Ct. 476, 483 n.7 (2011); Nat.
9
Res. Def. Council, 808 F.3d at 569; New York v. FERC, 783 F.3d at 958; Pub. Citizen,
10
Inc. v. Mineta, 340 F.3d 39, 53 (2d Cir. 2003); N.Y. Pub. Interest Research Grp. v.
11
Whitman, 321 F.3d 316, 324 (2d Cir. 2003); see also, e.g., Shays v. FEC, 414 F.3d 76,
12
96‐97 (D.C. Cir. 2005); Arent v. Shalala, 70 F.3d 610, 619 (D.C. Cir. 1995) (Wald, J.,
13
concurring). State Farm is used to evaluate whether a rule is procedurally
14
defective as a result of flaws in the agencyʹs decisionmaking process. See Encino,
15
136 S. Ct. at 2125; FERC v. Elec. Power Supply Assʹn, 136 S. Ct. 760, 784 (2016).
16
Chevron, by contrast, is generally used to evaluate whether the conclusion
17
reached as a result of that process—an agencyʹs interpretation of a statutory
18
provision it administers—is reasonable. See Encino, 136 S. Ct. at 2125; Entergy,
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556 U.S. at 217‐18. A litigant challenging a rule may challenge it under State
2
Farm, Chevron, or both. As Judge Wald explained,
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
there are certainly situations where a challenge to an agencyʹs regulation
will fall squarely within one rubric, rather than the other. For example,
we might invalidate an agencyʹs decision under Chevron as inconsistent
with its statutory mandate, even though we do not believe the decision
reflects an arbitrary policy choice. Such a result might occur when we
believe the agencyʹs course of action to be the most appropriate and
effective means of achieving a goal, but determine that Congress has
selected a different—albeit, in our eyes, less propitious—path.
Conversely, we might determine that although not barred by statute, an
agencyʹs action is arbitrary and capricious because the agency has not
considered certain relevant factors or articulated any rationale for its
choice. Or, along similar lines, we might find a regulation arbitrary and
capricious, while deciding that Chevron is inapplicable because Congressʹ
delegation to the agency is so broad as to be virtually unreviewable.
17
18
Arent, 70 F.3d at 620 (Wald, J., concurring) (citation and footnotes omitted).
Much confusion about the relationship between State Farm and Chevron
19
20
seems to arise because both standards purport to provide a method by which to
21
evaluate whether an agency action is ʺarbitraryʺ or ʺcapricious,ʺ and Chevron Step
22
Two analysis and State Farm analysis often, though not always, take the same
23
factors into consideration and therefore overlap. See Judulang, 132 S. Ct. at 483
24
n.7 (stating, in a case governed by the State Farm standard, that had the Supreme
25
Court applied Chevron, the ʺanalysis would be the same, because under Chevron
26
step two, we ask whether an agency interpretation is arbitrary or capricious in
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substanceʺ (internal quotation marks omitted)); Pharm. Research & Mfrs. of Am. v.
2
FTC, 790 F.3d 198, 204 (D.C. Cir. 2015) (noting that it is ʺoften the caseʺ that an
3
agencyʹs ʺinterpretation of its authority under Chevron Step Two overlaps with
4
our arbitrary and capricious review under 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(A)ʺ); Am. Petroleum
5
Inst. v. EPA, 216 F.3d 50, 57 (D.C. Cir. 2000) (ʺThe second step of Chevron analysis
6
and State Farm arbitrary and capricious review overlap, but are not identical.ʺ).
7
We read the case law to stand for the proposition that where a litigant brings
8
both a State Farm challenge and a Chevron challenge to a rule, and the State Farm
9
challenge is successful, there is no need for the reviewing court to engage in
10
Chevron analysis. As the Supreme Court has explained, ʺwhere a proper
11
challenge is raised to the agency procedures, and those procedures are defective,
12
a court should not accord Chevron deference to the agency interpretation.ʺ
13
Encino, 136 S. Ct. at 2125.30 In other words, if an interpretive rule was
14
promulgated in a procedurally defective manner, it will be set aside regardless of
In Encino, which was decided after the briefing in this appeal had been completed,
the Supreme Court declined to defer under Chevron to a Department of Labor
regulation that departed from a longstanding earlier position due to a ʺlack of reasoned
explication,ʺ inasmuch as the agency gave ʺalmost no reasons at allʺ for the change in
policy, and instead issued only vague blanket statements. 136 S. Ct. at 2127. Thus, the
plaintiffsʹ indisputably proper procedural challenge was successful, and therefore the
regulation was not entitled to Chevron deference, rendering an analysis under the two‐
step Chevron framework unnecessary. See id. at 2125‐26.
30
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whether its interpretation of the statute is reasonable. If the rule is not defective
2
under State Farm, though, that conclusion does not avoid the need for a Chevron
3
analysis, which does not incorporate the State Farm standard of review. In fact,
4
in many recent cases, we have applied Chevron Step Two without applying State
5
Farm or conducting an exacting review of the agencyʹs decisionmaking and
6
rationale. See, e.g., Stryker v. SEC, 780 F.3d 163, 167 (2d Cir. 2015); Florez v. Holder,
7
779 F.3d 207, 211‐12 (2d Cir. 2015); Lee, 701 F.3d at 937; Adams, 692 F.3d at 95;
8
WPIX, Inc. v. ivi, Inc., 691 F.3d 275 (2d Cir. 2012).
Several other considerations also counsel against employing the searching
9
10
State Farm standard of review of the agencyʹs decisionmaking and rationale at
11
Chevron Step Two. The Supreme Court has decided that agencies are not
12
obligated to conduct detailed fact‐finding or cost‐benefit analyses when
13
interpreting a statute—which suggests that the full‐fledged State Farm standard
14
may not apply to rules that set forth for the first time an agencyʹs interpretation
15
of a particular statutory provision. See, e.g., Pension Benefit Guar. Corp. v. LTV
16
Corp., 496 U.S. 633, 651‐52 (1990) (an agency may interpret an ambiguous
17
statutory provision by making ʺjudgments about the way the real world worksʺ
18
without making formal factual findings); Entergy, 556 U.S. at 223 (absent
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statutory language to the contrary, an agency is not required to conduct cost‐
2
benefit analysis under Chevron); Am. Textile Mfrs. Inst., Inc. v. Donovan, 452 U.S.
3
490, 510 (1981) (ʺWhen Congress has intended that an agency engage in cost‐
4
benefit analysis, it has clearly indicated such intent on the face of the statute.ʺ).
5
These decisions seem to establish that while an agency may support its statutory
6
interpretation with factual materials or cost‐benefit analyses, an agency need not
7
do so in order for its interpretation to be regarded as reasonable.
8
Further, the Supreme Court has cautioned that State Farm is ʺinapposite to
9
the extent that it may be read as prescribing more searching judicial reviewʺ in a
10
case involving an agencyʹs ʺfirst interpretation of a new statute.ʺ Verizon
11
Commcʹns Inc. v. FCC, 535 U.S. 467, 502 n.20 (2002); see also Judulang, 132 S. Ct. at
12
483 n.7 (stating that ʺstandard arbitrary or capricious review under the APAʺ
13
was appropriate because the agency action at issue was ʺnot an interpretation of
14
any statutory languageʺ (internal quotation marks and brackets omitted)).
15
Dovetailing with this point, the Supreme Court held in Brand X and Fox Television
16
Stations that when an agency changes its interpretation of a particular statutory
17
provision, this change is reviewable under APA § 706(2)(A), and will be set aside
18
if the agency has failed to provide a ʺreasoned explanation . . . for disregarding
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facts and circumstances that underlay or were engendered by the prior policy.ʺ
2
Fox Television, 556 U.S. at 516 ; Brand X, 545 U.S. at 981 (explaining that
3
ʺ[u]nexplained inconsistencyʺ is ʺa reason for holding an [agency] interpretation
4
to be an arbitrary and capricious change from agency practice under the [APA]ʺ).
5
Of course, if all interpretive rules were reviewable under APA § 706(2)(A) and
6
the State Farm standard, these pronouncements in Brand X and Fox Television
7
Stations would have been unnecessary. We also note that applying a
8
reasonableness standard to the agencyʹs decisionmaking and rationale at Chevron
9
Step Two instead of a heightened State Farm‐type standard promotes respect for
10
agenciesʹ policymaking discretion and promotes policymaking flexibility.
For these reasons, the plaintiffsʹ challenge to the Water Transfers Rule is
11
12
properly analyzed under the Chevron framework, which does not incorporate the
13
State Farm standard.31 We will therefore address only whether the EPA provided
14
a reasoned rationale for the Water Transfers Rule, and whether the Ruleʹs
15
interpretation of the Clean Water Act is reasonable. As to the former, the
None of the plaintiffs argue that the Rule was procedurally defective under APA
§ 706(2)(A), except for the Sportsmen and Environmental Organization Plaintiffs, who
do so only in the context of a Chevron Step Two argument. See Sportsmen and
Environmental Organization Pls.ʹ Br. at 36‐54, 58. In any event, as we have explained
above, the interpretive Rule here is properly reviewed only under the Chevron standard,
which does not incorporate the State Farm standard.
31
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question is not whether the EPAʹs reasoning was flawless, impervious to
2
counterarguments, or complete—the EPA only must have provided a reasoned
3
explanation for its action.
B. Reasoned Rationale for the EPAʹs Interpretation
4
We conclude that the EPA provided a reasoned explanation for its decision
5
6
in the Water Transfers Rule to interpret the Clean Water Act as not requiring
7
NPDES permits for water transfers. We can see from the EPAʹs rationale how
8
and why it arrived at the interpretation of the Clean Water Act set forth in the
9
Water Transfers Rule. It is clear that the EPA based the Rule on a holistic
10
interpretation of the Clean Water Act that took into account the statutory
11
language, the broader statutory scheme, the statuteʹs legislative history, the
12
EPAʹs longstanding position that water transfers are not subject to NPDES
13
permitting, congressional concerns that the statute not unnecessarily burden
14
water quantity management activities, and the importance of water transfers to
15
U.S. infrastructure. See Water Transfers Rule, 73 Fed. Reg. at 33,699‐33,703.
16
In the Water Transfers Rule, the EPA analyzed the text of the statute,
17
explaining how its interpretation was justified by its understanding of the phrase
18
ʺthe waters of the United States,ʺ id. at 33,701, as well as by the broader statutory
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scheme, noting that the Clean Water Act provides for several programs and
2
regulatory initiatives other than the NPDES permitting program that could be
3
used to mitigate pollution caused by water transfers, id. at 33,701‐33,702. The
4
EPA also justified the Rule by reference to statutory purpose, noting its view that
5
ʺCongress intended to leave primary oversight of water transfers to state
6
authorities in cooperation with Federal authorities,ʺ and that Congress intended
7
to create a ʺbalance . . . between federal and State oversight of activities affecting
8
the nation’s waters.ʺ Id. at 33,701. The EPA also stated that subjecting water
9
transfers to NPDES permitting could affect statesʹ ability to effectively allocate
10
water and water rights, id. at 33,702, and explained how its interpretation was
11
justified in light of the Actʹs legislative history, see id. at 33,703. The EPA
12
concluded by addressing several public comments on the Rule, and explaining in
13
a reasoned manner why it rejected proposed alternative readings of the Clean
14
Water Act. See id. at 33,703‐33,706.
This rationale, while not immune to criticism or counterargument, was
15
16
sufficiently reasoned to clear Chevronʹs rather minimal requirement that the
17
agency give a reasoned explanation for its interpretation. We see nothing
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illogical in the EPAʹs rationale.32 The agency provided a sufficiently reasoned
2
explanation for its interpretation of the Clean Water Act in the Water Transfers
3
Rule. The Ruleʹs interpretation of the Clean Water Act was therefore not adopted
4
in an ʺarbitraryʺ or ʺcapriciousʺ manner. Accordingly, we must address whether
5
the Ruleʹs interpretation of the Clean Water Act was, ultimately, reasonable.
C. Reasonableness of the EPAʹs Interpretation
6
7
Having concluded that the EPA offered a sufficient explanation for
8
adopting the Rule, we next examine whether the Rule reasonably interprets the
9
Clean Water Act. We conclude that it does. The EPAʹs interpretation of the
10
Clean Water Act as reflected in the Rule is supported by several valid
11
arguments—interpretive, theoretical, and practical. The permissibility of the
12
Rule is reinforced by longstanding practice and acquiescence by Congress, recent
The district court criticized the EPAʹs rationale for the Water Transfers Rule on the
grounds that it was illogical for EPA to reason that: (1) Congress did not intend to
subject water transfers to NPDES permitting; (2) therefore, water transfers do not
constitute an addition to navigable waters; (3) because water transfers are not an
ʺaddition,ʺ they do not constitute a ʺdischarge of a pollutantʺ under § 301(a), and
therefore do not require an NPDES permit. Catskill III, 8 F. Supp. 3d at 543. According
to the district court, because the NPDES program is only one of many provisions that
regulate discharges made unlawful under § 301(a), step (1) could not possibly lead to
steps (2) and (3)—that is, Congressional intent not to regulate water transfers under the
NPDES program does not imply Congressional intent not to regulate water transfers
under the other programs for regulating discharges of pollutants. Id. at 544. But the
Water Transfers Rule did not exempt water transfers from any of the other programs for
regulating discharges of pollutants—it applies only to the NPDES program.
32
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case law, practical concerns regarding compliance costs, and the existence of
2
alternative means for regulating pollution resulting from water transfers.
First, as far as we have been able to determine, in the nearly forty years
3
4
since the passage of the Clean Water Act, water transfers have never been subject
5
to a general NPDES permitting requirement. Congress thus appears to have,
6
however silently, acquiesced in this state of affairs. This may well reflect an
7
intent not to require NPDES permitting to be imposed in every situation in
8
which it might be required, including as a means for regulating water transfers.
9
This in turn suggests that the EPAʹs unitary‐waters interpretation of Section 402
10
of the Act in the Water Transfers Rule is reasonable.
Second, the Supreme Courtʹs decision in Miccosukee and the Eleventh
11
12
Circuitʹs decision in Friends I support this conclusion. Miccosukee was decided
13
before the EPA issued the Water Transfers Rule and, absent the interpretation of
14
an agency rule, did not involve the application of Chevron. It was a citizen suit
15
against the South Florida Water Management District (the ʺDistrictʺ), which is
16
also an intervenor‐defendant in the instant proceedings. The Miccosukee
17
plaintiffs argued that the District was impermissibly operating a pumping
18
facility without an NPDES permit. 541 U.S. at 98‐99. The district court granted
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summary judgment to the plaintiffs; the Eleventh Circuit affirmed. Id. at 99. The
2
Supreme Court vacated the judgment and remanded the case on the ground that
3
granting summary judgment was inappropriate because further factual findings
4
as to whether the two water bodies at issue were meaningfully distinct were
5
necessary. Id. In its decision, the Supreme Court addressed three key questions.
6
First, it asked whether the definition of ʺdischarge of a pollutantʺ in Section 502
7
of the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. § 1362(12)) reaches point sources that do not
8
themselves generate pollutants. The Court held that it does. Miccosukee, 541 U.S.
9
at 105.
Second, the Court addressed whether ʺall the water bodies that fall within
10
11
the Actʹs definition of ʹnavigable watersʹ (that is, all ʹthe waters of the United
12
States, including the territorial seas,ʹ § 1362(7)) should be viewed unitarily for
13
purposes of NPDES permitting requirements.ʺ Id. at 105‐06. The Court declined
14
to defer to the EPAʹs ʺlongstandingʺ view to that effect because ʺthe Government
15
d[id] not identify any administrative documents in which [the] EPA ha[d]
16
espoused that positionʺ; in point of fact, ʺthe agency once reached the opposite
17
conclusion.ʺ Id. at 107. As the dissent points out, the Supreme Court suggested
18
that it took a dim view of the unitary‐waters reading of the CWA, stating that:
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ʺseveral NPDES provisions might be read to suggest a view contrary to the
2
unitary‐waters approachʺ; ʺ[t]he ʹunitary watersʹ approach could also conflict
3
with current NPDES regulationsʺ; and ʺ[t]he NPDES program . . . appears to
4
address the movement of pollutants among water bodies, at least at times.ʺ Id. at
5
107‐08. But the Court also seemed to acknowledge that the statute could be
6
interpreted in different ways:
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
It may be that construing the NPDES program to cover such transfers
would therefore raise the costs of water distribution prohibitively, and
violate Congressʹ specific instruction that ʺthe authority of each State to
allocate quantities of water within its jurisdiction shall not be superseded,
abrogated or otherwise impairedʺ by the Act. § 1251(g). On the other
hand, it may be that such permitting authority is necessary to protect
water quality, and that the States or EPA could control regulatory costs by
issuing general permits to point sources associated with water distribution
programs. See 40 CFR §§ 122.28, 123.25 (2003).
16
17
Id. at 108. Ultimately, the Court declined to rule on the unitary‐waters theory
18
because the parties did not raise the argument before the Eleventh Circuit or in
19
their briefs supporting and opposing the Courtʹs grant of certiorari. Instead, the
20
Court did no more than note that unitary‐waters arguments would be open to
21
the parties on remand. Id. at 109.
Third, the Supreme Court addressed whether a triable issue of fact existed
22
23
as to whether the water transfer at issue was between ʺmeaningfully distinctʺ
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water bodies, and thus required an NPDES permit. The Court held that such a
2
triable issue did exist, and vacated and remanded for further fact‐finding. Id. at
3
109‐12. The Court stated that if after reviewing the full record, the district court
4
concluded that the water transfer was not between two meaningfully distinct
5
bodies of water, then the District would not need to obtain an NPDES permit in
6
order to operate the pumping facility. Id. at 112. Thus, it seems as though the
7
purpose of the remand was (a) to address the partiesʹ unitary‐waters arguments
8
as a preliminary legal matter, and (b) to engage in fact‐finding necessary to
9
resolve the case if the argument as to unitary‐waters did not prevail.
10
With respect to the unitary‐waters interpretation of Section 402, then,
11
Miccosukee suggested that a unitary‐waters interpretation of the statute was
12
unlikely to prevail because it was not the best reading of the statute, but did not
13
conclude that it was an unreasonable reading of the statute. By acknowledging
14
the arguments against requiring NPDES permits for water transfers, and noting
15
that unitary‐waters arguments would be open to the parties on remand, the
16
Court can be read to have suggested that such arguments are reasonable, even if
17
not, in the Courtʹs view, preferable.
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This interpretation of Miccosukee is reflected in subsequent case law
2
interpreting that decision. In Catskill II, we expressed our view that ʺMiccosukee
3
did no more than note the existence of the [unitary‐waters] theory and raise
4
possible arguments against it.ʺ 451 F.3d at 83. And in Friends I, the Eleventh
5
Circuit concluded, despite its discussion of Miccosukee, that the Water Transfers
6
Ruleʹs interpretation of the CWA is entitled to Chevron deference. See Friends I,
7
570 F.3d at 1217‐18, 1225, 1228.
Friends I provides further support for the reasonableness of the Ruleʹs
8
9
interpretation. Like Miccosukee, the decision addressed whether the District was
10
required to obtain NPDES permits to conduct certain specified water transfers.
11
See Friends I, 570 F.3d at 1214. This time, however, the issue was addressed after
12
the EPA had issued the Water Transfers Rule, and the deferential framework of
13
Chevron therefore applied. In Friends I, the parties did not contest that the donor
14
water bodies (canals from which water was pumped into Lake Okeechobee) and
15
the receiving water body (the lake) were ʺnavigable waters.ʺ Id. at 1216. Because
16
under Miccosukee the NPDES ʺpermitting requirement does not apply unless the
17
bodies of water are meaningfully distinct,ʺ the question was therefore ʺwhether
18
moving an existing pollutant from one navigable water body to another is an
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ʹaddition . . . to navigable watersʹ of that pollutant.ʺ Id. at 1216 & n.4 (quoting 33
2
U.S.C. § 1362(12)). The District argued, based on the ʺunitary waters theory,ʺ
3
that ʺit is not an ʹaddition . . . to navigable watersʹ to move existing pollutants
4
from one navigable water to another.ʺ Id. at 1217. ʺAn addition occurs, under
5
this theory, only when pollutants first enter navigable waters from a point
6
source, not when they are moved between navigable waters.ʺ Id.
The Eleventh Circuit agreed. It began its analysis by surveying relevant
7
8
prior decisions, noting that ʺ[t]he unitary waters theory has a low batting
9
average. In fact, it has struck out in every court of appeals where it has come up
10
to the plate.ʺ Id. (collecting cases). In the time since those decisions were issued,
11
however, there ʺha[d] been a change. An important one. Under its regulatory
12
authority, the EPA ha[d then‐]recently issued a regulation adopting a final rule
13
specifically addressing this very question. Because that regulation was not
14
available at the time of the earlier decisions,ʺ including Catskill I, Catskill II, and
15
Miccosukee, ʺthey [we]re not precedent against it.ʺ Id. at 1218. Therefore, the
16
question before the Court was whether to give Chevron deference to the Rule.
17
ʺAll that matters is whether the regulation is a reasonable construction of an
18
ambiguous statute.ʺ Id. at 1219. The cases on which the plaintiffs relied—which
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included Catskill I, Catskill II, and Miccosukee—were therefore unhelpful because
2
there was then no formal rule to which to apply the Chevron framework.
3
ʺDeciding how best to construe statutory language is not the same thing as
4
deciding whether a particular construction is within the ballpark of
5
reasonableness.ʺ Id. at 1221.
The court then engaged in a Chevron analysis strikingly similar to the one
6
7
we are tasked with conducting here. As to the plain meaning of the statutory
8
language, the Eleventh Circuit determined that the key question was whether ʺʹto
9
navigable watersʹ means to all navigable waters as a singular whole.ʺ Id. at 1223
10
(emphasis in original). This question could not be resolved by looking to the
11
common meaning of the word ʺwaters,ʺ which could be used to refer to several
12
different bodies of water collectively (e.g., ʺthe waters of the Gulf coastʺ) or to a
13
single body of water (e.g., ʺthe waters of Mobile Bayʺ). Id. After examining the
14
statutory language in the context of the Clean Water Act as a whole, the court
15
then noted that Congress knew how to use the term ʺany navigable watersʺ in
16
other statutory provisions when it wanted to protect individual water bodies
17
(even though it at times used the unmodified term ʺnavigable watersʺ for the
18
same meaning), and determined that the Actʹs goals were so broad as to be
78
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unhelpful in answering this difficult, specific question. See id. at 1224‐27. The
2
court therefore concluded that the statutory language was ambiguous, and that
3
the EPAʹs unitary‐waters reading of Section 402 was reasonable. Id. at 1227‐28.
4
The Court of Appeals explained, using an analogy we think is applicable to in
5
the case before us:
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Sometimes it is helpful to strip a legal question of the contentious policy
interests attached to it and think about it in the abstract using a
hypothetical. Consider the issue this way: Two buckets sit side by side,
one with four marbles in it and the other with none. There is a rule
prohibiting ʺany addition of any marbles to buckets by any person.ʺ A
person comes along, picks up two marbles from the first bucket, and
drops them into the second bucket. Has the marble‐mover ʺadd[ed] any
marbles to bucketsʺ? On one hand, as the [plaintiffs] might argue, there
are now two marbles in a bucket where there were none before, so an
addition of marbles has occurred. On the other hand, as the [District]
might argue and as the EPA would decide, there were four marbles in
buckets before, and there are still four marbles in buckets, so no addition
of marbles has occurred. Whatever position we might take if we had to
pick one side or the other we cannot say that either side is unreasonable.
Id. at 1228 (first brackets in original).
Following Friends I, the Eleventh Circuit in Friends II dismissed several
21
22
petitions for direct appellate review of the Water Transfers Rule on the grounds
23
that the Court lacked subject‐matter jurisdiction under the Act (specifically, 33
24
U.S.C. §§ 1369(b)(1)(E), (F)) and could not exercise hypothetical jurisdiction.
25
Friends II, 699 F.3d at 1286‐89. In the course of doing so, the Eleventh Circuit
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clarified its holding in Friends I that ʺthe water‐transfer rule was a reasonable
2
interpretation of an ambiguous provision of the Clean Water Act,ʺ and therefore
3
passed muster under Chevronʹs deferential standard of review. Id. at 1285. We
4
are in general agreement with the Friends I approach, and in complete agreement
5
with its conclusion that we must give Chevron deference to the EPAʹs
6
interpretation of Section 402 of the Act in the Water Transfers Rule.33
The Supreme Courtʹs more recent decision in Los Angeles County Flood Control
District v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 133 S. Ct. 710 (2013), on which some of
the plaintiffs and the dissent rely, does not suggest that the Water Transfers Ruleʹs
interpretation of the Clean Water Act is or is not reasonable. In Los Angeles County, the
Supreme Court held that ʺthe flow of water from an improved portion of a navigable
waterway into an unimproved portion of the very same waterway does not qualify as a
discharge of pollutants under the CWA,ʺ reasoning that, ʺ[u]nder a common
understanding of the meaning of the word ʹadd,ʹ no pollutants are ʹaddedʹ to a water
body when water is merely transferred between different portions of that water body.ʺ
Id. at 713. This conclusion is consistent with both a unitary‐waters reading of the CWA
(under which a discharge of a pollutant occurs only when the pollutant is first
introduced to any of the navigable waters), and with a non‐unitary‐waters reading
(under which a discharge of a pollutant occurs only when a pollutant is first introduced
from a particular navigable water to another, and not when it moves around within the
same navigable water).
The Supreme Courtʹs opinion in Los Angeles County does not discuss the definition of
ʺnavigable waters,ʺ nor does it imply a definition of that term. True, the Supreme Court
characterized Miccosukee as holding that a ʺwater transfer would count as a discharge of
pollutants under the CWA only if the canal and the reservoir were ʹmeaningfully
distinct water bodies.ʹʺ Id. (quoting Miccosukee, 541 U.S. at 112). But this cannot change
what the Miccosukee majority opinion actually said, and, as we discussed above,
Miccosukee indicates that a unitary‐waters reading may be ʺwithin the ballpark of
reasonableness.ʺ See Friends I, 570 F.3d at 1221. Ultimately, Los Angeles County does not
provide support for either side of the debate over the unitary‐waters theory
encapsulated in the Water Transfers Rule.
33
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Another factor favoring the reasonableness of the Water Transfers Ruleʹs
1
2
interpretation of the Clean Water Act is that compliance with an NPDES
3
permitting scheme for water transfers is likely to be burdensome and costly for
4
permittees, and may disrupt existing water transfer systems. For instance,
5
several intervenor‐defendant water districts assert that it could cost an estimated
6
$4.2 billion to treat just the most significant water transfers in the Western United
7
States, and that obtaining an NPDES permit and complying with its conditions
8
could cost a single water provider hundreds of millions of dollars. See Water
9
Districts Br. 21. Similarly, intervenor‐defendant New York City submits that if it
10
is not granted the permanent variances it has requested in its most recent permit
11
application, it will be forced to construct an expensive water‐treatment plant, see
12
NYC Br. 22‐23, 28‐30, 35‐37, 55‐56, and amicus curiae the State of California argues
13
that requiring NPDES permits would put a significant financial and logistical
14
strain on the California State Water Project, see State of California Amicus Br. 16.
15
Further, amici curiae the American Farm Bureau Federation and Florida Farm
16
Bureau Federation argue that the invalidation of the Water Transfers Rule would
17
(i) throw the status of agricultural water‐flow plans into doubt, and (ii) require
18
state water agencies to increase revenues to pay for permits for levies and dams,
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which they would likely accomplish by raising agricultural and property taxes,
2
and which in turn would raise farmersʹ costs and hurt their international
3
economic competitiveness. See Farmer Amici Br. 2‐3. The potential for such
4
disruptive results, if accurate, would provide further support for the EPAʹs
5
decision to interpret the statutory ambiguity at issue so as not to require NPDES
6
permits for water transfers.34
Yet another consideration supporting the reasonableness of the Water
7
8
Transfers Rule is that several alternatives could regulate pollution in water
9
transfers even in the absence of an NPDES permitting scheme, including:
10
nonpoint source programs;35 other federal statutes and regulations (like the Safe
11
Drinking Water Act, 42 U.S.C. § 300f et seq., and the Surface Water Treatment
12
Rule, 40 C.F.R. § 141.70 et seq.); the Federal Energy Regulatory Commissionʹs
13
regulatory scheme for non‐federal hydropower dams; state permitting programs
14
that have more stringent requirements than the NPDES program, see 33 U.S.C.
The district court made no findings of fact in the course of answering the purely
legal question before it, and we express no view as to the likelihood that requiring
NPDES permits for water transfers would lead to the results identified above. We note
only that concerns that such results might arise are plausible and could support the
EPAʹs interpretation of the Clean Water Act in the Water Transfers Rule.
35 Examples of nonpoint source programs are state water quality management plans
and total maximum daily loads (commonly called ʺTMDLsʺ). See EPA Br. 30; EPA
Reply Br. 19‐20; NYC Br. 51‐53; Western States Br. 37‐38; Western Parties J. Reply 25‐28.
34
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§ 1370(1); other state authorities and laws; interstate compacts; and international
2
treaties.36 The availability of these regulatory alternatives further points towards
3
the reasonableness of the EPAʹs interpretation of the Act in the Water Transfers
4
Rule.
5
With respect to other state authorities and laws, the Act ʺrecognizes that
6
states retain the primary role in planning the development and use of land and
7
water resources, allocating quantities of water within their jurisdictions, and
8
regulating water pollution, as long as those state regulations are not less
9
stringent than the requirements set by the CWA.ʺ Catskill II, 451 F.3d at 79
10
(citations omitted). To these ends, states can rely on statutory authorities at their
11
disposal for regulating the potentially negative water quality impacts of water
12
transfers.37 States can also enforce water quality standards through their
One example of such a treaty is the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909, Treaty Between
the United States and Great Britain Relating to Boundary Waters, and Questions Arising
Between the United States and Canada, Intʹl Joint Commʹn, art. IV (May 13, 1910), available
at http://www.ijc.org/en_/BWT (last visited July 18, 2016), archived at
https://perma.cc/M3F3‐NWLT. See Western States Br. 46‐47.
37 For instance, the States and their agencies generally have broad authority to prevent
the pollution of the Statesʹ waters. Coloradoʹs Water Quality Control Commission is
authorized to promulgate regulations providing for mandatory or prohibitory
precautionary measures concerning any activity that could cause the quality of any
state waters to be in violation of any water quality standard. See, e.g., Colo. Rev. Stat.
§§ 25‐8‐205(1)(c), 25‐8‐503(5). In addition, New Mexicoʹs State Engineer is authorized to
deny a water transfer permit if he or she finds that the transfer will be detrimental to the
36
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certification authority under Section 401 of the Clean Water Act, which requires
2
that applicants for federal licenses or permits obtain a state certification that any
3
discharge of pollutants will comply with the water‐quality standards applicable
4
to the receiving water body. See 33 U.S.C. § 1341; S.D. Warren Co. v. Me. Bd. of
5
Envtl. Prot., 547 U.S. 370, 386 (2006); PUD No. 1, 511 U.S. at 712.
States have still more regulatory tools at their disposal. State agencies may
6
7
be granted specific authority to address particular pollution or threats of
8
pollution. For example, in New York, the NYSDEC is authorized and directed to
9
promulgate rules to protect the recreational uses—such as trout fishing and
Stateʹs public welfare (for example, by jeopardizing water quality). See N.M. Stat. Ann.
§ 72‐5‐23; Stokes v. Morgan, 680 P.2d 335, 341 (N.M. 1984) (suggesting that the State
Engineer could deny a permit to change the point of diversion and place of use of
groundwater rights where ʺintrusion of poor quality water could result in impairment
of existing rightsʺ). In California, interbasin transfers are already subject to water
quality regulation separate from the federal NPDES permitting authority by Californiaʹs
State Water Resources Control Board and the Stateʹs regional water quality control
boards. See Cal. Water Code §§ 1257‐58, 13263; Lake Madrone Water Dist. v. State Water
Res. Control Bd., 209 Cal.App.3d 163, 174, 256 Cal. Rptr. 894, 901 (1989) (noting that
California ʺmay enact more stringent controls on discharges than are required by the
[Clean Water Act]ʺ); United States v. State Water Res. Control Bd., 182 Cal. App. 3d 82,
127‐30, 149‐52, 227 Cal. Rptr. 161, 185‐87, 200‐02 (1986) (Californiaʹs State Water
Resources Control Board can reexamine previously issued water‐rights permits to
address newly discovered water‐quality matters). And the State of New Yorkʹs
Department of Environmental Conservation (the ʺNYSDECʺ) enforces its own water
quality standards outside of the NPDES permitting program. See, e.g., N.Y. Envtl.
Conserv. Law §§ 15‐0313(2) (the NYSDEC is authorized to modify water quality
standards and to reclassify the Stateʹs waters), 17‐0301 (the NYSDEC has authority to
classify waters and apply different standards of quality and purity to waters in different
classes), 17‐0501 (general prohibition on water pollution).
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canoeing—of waters affected by certain large reservoirs such as the Schoharie
2
Reservoir. See N.Y. Envtl. Conserv. Law §§ 15‐0801, 15‐0805 (McKinney 2008).
3
And as discussed above, states likely can also bring common‐law nuisance suits
4
to enjoin and abate pollution. See Intʹl Paper Co. v. Ouellette, 479 U.S. 481, 487
5
(1987) (the common law of the state in which the point source is located can
6
provide a basis for a legal challenge to an interstate discharge or transfer).
7
Lastly, although water transfers apparently do not often have interstate or
8
international effects, the States and the Federal Government can address any
9
such effects through interstate compacts or treaties,38 as well as Section 310 of the
10
Clean Water Act, which authorizes an EPA‐initiated procedure for abating
11
international pollution, 33 U.S.C. § 1320. The existence of these available
12
regulatory alternatives suggests that exempting water transfers from the NPDES
13
permitting program would not necessarily defeat the fundamental water‐quality
14
aims of the Clean Water Act, which further counsels in favor of the
15
reasonableness of the Water Transfers Rule. We need not now evaluate the
16
effectiveness of such alternatives; we note only that their existence suggests that
17
the Rule is reasonable.
38
See supra note 36.
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The plaintiffs advance several other arguments against the reasonableness
1
2
of the Water Transfers Ruleʹs interpretation of the Clean Water Act. Ultimately,
3
none persuades us that the Rule is an unreasonable interpretation of the Clean
4
Water Act.
The plaintiffs first argue, as we have noted, that the Water Transfers Rule
5
6
arises out of an unreasonable reading of the Act because it subverts the main
7
objective of the Clean Water Act, ʺto restore and maintain the chemical, physical,
8
and biological integrity of the Nationʹs waters,ʺ 33 U.S.C. § 1251(a), by allowing
9
ʺthe transfer of water from a heavily polluted, even toxic, water body to one that
10
was pristine,ʺ Catskill II, 451 F.3d at 81. While this is a powerful argument
11
against the EPAʹs position, we are not convinced that it establishes that the Water
12
Transfers Rule is an unreasonable interpretation of the Clean Water Act, which is
13
ʺamong the most complexʺ of federal statutes and ʺbalances a welter of consistent
14
and inconsistent goals.ʺ Catskill I, 273 F.3d at 494. Congressʹs overarching goal in
15
passing the Act does not imply that the EPA could not accommodate some of the
16
compromises and other policy concerns embedded in the statute in
17
promulgating the Water Transfers Rule.
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Some plaintiffs also argue that the EPAʹs interpretation of Section 402
1
2
contained in the Water Transfers Rule is unreasonable in light of the EPAʹs
3
interpretation of Section 404. They point out that the EPA has interpreted the
4
phrase ʺdischarge of dredged . . . material into the navigable watersʺ from
5
Section 404 to require a permit when dredged material is moved from one
6
location to another within the same water body, regardless of whether the
7
dredged material is ever removed from the water. See 33 U.S.C. § 1344(a); 40
8
C.F.R. § 232.2. They argue that if moving dredged material from one part of a
9
water body to another part of that same water body is an ʺaddition . . . into . . .
10
the waters of the United States,ʺ see 40 C.F.R. § 232.2, then it is unreasonable to
11
say that the movement of heavily polluted water from one water body into a
12
pristine water body is not also an ʺadditionʺ to ʺwatersʺ that would require an
13
NPDES permit.
But Section 404 contains different language that suggests that a different
14
15
interpretation of the term ʺadditionʺ is appropriate in analyzing that section.
16
Section 404 concerns ʺdredged material,ʺ which, as the EPA pointed out in the
17
Water Transfers Rule, ʺby its very nature comes from a waterbody.ʺ 73 Fed. Reg.
18
at 33,703. As the Fifth Circuit has observed, in the context of Section 404, one
87
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cannot reasonably interpret the phrase ʺaddition . . . into . . . the waters of the
2
United Statesʺ to refer only to the addition of dredged material from the ʺoutside
3
worldʺ —that is, from outside the ʺwaters of the United Statesʺ—because the
4
dredged material comes from within the waters of the United States itself. See
5
Avoyelles Sportsmenʹs League, Inc. v. Marsh, 715 F.2d 897, 924 n.43 (5th Cir. 1983).
6
Interpreting Section 404 so as not to require permits for dredged material already
7
present in ʺthe waters of the United Statesʺ would effectively mean that dredged
8
material would never be subject to Section 404 permitting, eviscerating Congressʹs
9
intent to establish a dredge‐and‐fill permitting system. By contrast, Section 402
10
concerns a much broader class of pollutants than Section 404, and the Water
11
Transfers Ruleʹs interpretation of Section 402 would not require the dismantling
12
of existing NPDES permitting programs. The EPA can therefore reasonably
13
interpret what constitutes an ʺadditionʺ into ʺthe waters of the United Statesʺ
14
differently under each provision.39
In any event, there is no requirement that the same term used in different provisions
of the same statute be interpreted identically. Envtl. Def. v. Duke Energy Corp., 549 U.S.
561, 574‐76 (2007). Indeed, ʺ[i]t is not impermissible under Chevron for an agency to
interpret [the same] imprecise term differently in two separate sections of a statute
which have different purposes.ʺ Abbott Labs. v. Young, 920 F.2d 984, 987 (D.C. Cir. 1990),
cert. denied sub nom. Abbott Labs. v. Kessler, 502 U.S. 819 (1991); see also Aquarius Marine
Co. v. Peña, 64 F.3d 82, 88 (2d Cir. 1995) (an agency has ʺdiscretion to undertake
independent interpretations of the same term in different statutesʺ).
39
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Finally, we think that the plaintiffsʹ reliance on Clark v. Martinez, 543 U.S.
1
2
371, 386‐87 (2005), and Sorenson v. Secʹy of the Treasury of U.S., 475 U.S. 851, 860
3
(1986), is misplaced. In Clark, the Supreme Court cautioned against ʺthe
4
dangerous principle that judges can give the same statutory text different
5
meanings in different cases.ʺ Clark, 543 U.S. at 386. But that cautionary
6
statement referred to an interpretation of a specific subsection of the Immigration
7
and Nationality Act that would give a phrase one meaning when applied to the
8
first of three categories of aliens, and another meaning when applied to the
9
second of those categories. See id. at 377‐78, 386. It does not follow that an
10
agency cannot interpret similar, ambiguous statutory language in one section of
11
a statute differently than similar language contained in another, entirely distinct
12
section. In Sorenson, the Supreme Court noted in dicta that there is a presumption
13
that ʺidentical words used in different parts of the same act are intended to have
14
the same meaning,ʺ 475 U.S. at 860 (quoting Helvering v. Stockholms Enskilda Bank,
15
293 U.S. 84, 87 (1934)). But this is no more than a presumption. It can be
16
rebutted by evidence that Congress intended the words to be interpreted
17
differently in each section, or to leave a gap for the agency to fill. See Duke, 549
18
U.S. at 575‐76 (ʺThere is, then, no effectively irrebuttable presumption that the
89
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same defined term in different provisions of the same statute must be interpreted
2
identically.ʺ (internal quotation marks omitted)). Here, there is evidence that
3
Congress gave the EPA the discretion to interpret the terms ʺadditionʺ and the
4
broader phrases ʺaddition . . . to navigable watersʺ (Section 402) and ʺaddition . . .
5
into . . . the waters of the United Statesʺ (40 C.F.R. § 232.2, defining ʺdischarge of
6
dredged materialʺ in Section 404) differently.
*
7
*
In sum, the Water Transfers Ruleʹs interpretation of the Clean Water Act—
8
9
*
which exempts water transfers from the NPDES permitting program—is
10
supported by several reasonable arguments. The EPAʹs interpretation need not
11
be the ʺonly possible interpretation,ʺ nor need it be ʺthe interpretation deemed
12
most reasonable.ʺ Entergy, 556 U.S. at 218 (emphasis in original). And even
13
though, as we note yet again, we might conclude that it is not the interpretation
14
that would most effectively further the Clean Water Actʹs principal focus on
15
water quality, it is reasonable nonetheless. Indeed, in light of the potentially
16
serious and disruptive practical consequences of requiring NPDES permits for
17
water transfers, the EPAʹs interpretation here involves the kind of ʺdifficult
18
policy choices that agencies are better equipped to make than courts.ʺ Brand X,
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545 U.S. at 980. Because the Water Transfers Rule is a reasonable construction of
2
the Clean Water Act supported by a reasoned explanation, it survives deferential
3
review under Chevron, and the district courtʹs decision must therefore be
4
reversed.
CONCLUSION
5
For the foregoing reasons, we defer under Chevron to the EPAʹs
6
7
interpretation of the Clean Water Act in the Water Transfers Rule. Accordingly,
8
we reverse the judgment of the district court and reinstate the challenged rule.
91
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