Doe v. Lt. Gen. Franklin Lee Hagenbec
Filing
OPINION, reverse the order of the district court, by RCW, DAL, DC, FILED.[2113113] [15-1890]
Case 15-1890, Document 200-1, 08/30/2017, 2113113, Page1 of 32
15‐1890‐cv
Doe v. Hagenbeck
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
August Term 2015
(Argued: June 16, 2016
Decided: August 30, 2017)
No. 15‐1890‐cv
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
JANE DOE,
Plaintiff‐Appellee,
‐v.‐
LT. GEN. FRANKLIN LEE HAGENBECK,
BRIG. GEN. WILLIAM E. RAPP,
Defendants‐Appellants,
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Defendant.
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Before:
WESLEY, LIVINGSTON, and CHIN, Circuit Judges.
Appeal from an April 13, 2015 order of the United States District Court for
the Southern District of New York (Hellerstein, J.), granting in part and denying
in part Defendants’ motion to dismiss. Plaintiff‐Appellee Jane Doe — a former
West Point cadet who alleges that she was sexually assaulted by another
cadet — brought a Bivens action against two superior officers at West Point,
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Defendants‐Appellants Lieutenant General Franklin Lee Hagenbeck and
Brigadier General William E. Rapp, in their personal capacities, for alleged
violation of her Fifth Amendment right to equal protection. Because
adjudicating Doe’s claim would require judicial interference into a wide range of
military functions (including the training, supervision, discipline, education, and
command of service personnel at West Point), triggering the incident‐to‐service
rule, we conclude that there is no Bivens remedy available in this context.
Accordingly, the order of the district court is REVERSED, and the case is
REMANDED with instructions to dismiss.
JUDGE CHIN dissents in a separate opinion.
FOR PLAINTIFF‐APPELLEE:
REBECCA OJSERKIS, JONAS WANG, Erin
Baldwin, Kathryn Wynbrandt, Bethany Li,
Michael J. Wishnie, Veteran Legal Services
Clinic, Jerome M. Frank Legal Services
Organization, Yale Law School, New
Haven, CT, for Jane Doe.
FOR DEFENDANTS‐APPELLANTS:
CHRISTOPHER CONNOLLY, Benjamin H.
Torrance,
Assistant
United
States
Attorneys, New York, NY, for Joon H. Kim,
Acting United States Attorney for the
Southern District of New York, for Lt. Gen.
Franklin Lee Hagenbeck and Brig. Gen.
William E. Rapp.
AMICI CURIAE:
Caitlin J. Halligan, Joel M. Cohen, Casey K.
Lee, Kathryn M. Cherry, Gibson, Dunn &
Crutcher LLP, New York, NY, for Amici
Curiae Federal Courts and Constitutional
Law Professors, in support of Jane Doe.
Paul W. Hughes, Travis Crum, Mayer
Brown LLP, Washington, D.C., for Amici
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Curiae University Administrators, in support
of Jane Doe.
Penelope A. Preovolos, Ben Patterson,
Morrison & Foerster LLP, San Francisco,
CA, for Amici Curiae Former Military
Officers, in support of Jane Doe.
John D. Niles, James Anglin Flynn,
Covington & Burling LLP, Washington,
D.C., for Amici Curiae National Veterans
Legal Services Program, Protect Our
Defenders, Service Women’s Action
Network, in support of Jane Doe.
Sandra S. Park, Steven Watt, Lenora M.
Lapidus, American Civil Liberties Union
Foundation, New York, NY, for Amici
Curiae American Civil Liberties Union,
American Association of University
Women, Human Rights and Gender Justice
Clinic at the City University of New York
School of Law, Human Rights Watch,
National Alliance to End Sexual Violence,
National Center on Domestic and Sexual
Violence, National Women’s Law Center,
in support of Jane Doe.
DEBRA ANN LIVINGSTON, Circuit Judge:
Jane Doe is a former United States Military Academy (“West Point”) cadet
who alleges that during her second year at West Point, she was sexually
assaulted by a fellow cadet. She filed this lawsuit not against the cadet, but
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against two superior officers, Lieutenant General Franklin Lee Hagenbeck and
Brigadier General William E. Rapp, in their personal capacities. Lieutenant
General Hagenbeck was Superintendent of West Point from approximately July
2006 to July 2010, and in that role he chaired the Sexual Assault Review Board,
which is the “primary means of oversight” of the sexual assault prevention and
response program at West Point. Joint App’x 12. Brigadier General Rapp was
Commandant of Cadets at West Point from 2009 to 2011 and was in charge of the
administration and training of cadets. Doe alleges, in substance, that Lieutenant
General Hagenbeck and Brigadier General Rapp “perpetrat[ed] a sexually
aggressive culture” at West Point that “discriminated against female cadets,”
“put female cadets at risk of violent harm,” and resulted, inter alia, in her sexual
assault. Id. at 29.
In 2013, Doe filed suit against the United States, Lieutenant General
Hagenbeck, and Brigadier General Rapp. She pleaded four causes of action, but
the district court dismissed all but one: a claim against Lieutenant General
Hagenbeck and Brigadier General Rapp brought pursuant to Bivens v. Six
Unknown Named Agents of Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S. 388 (1971), on the
basis of their alleged violation of equal protection rights protected by the Fifth
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Amendment. For the reasons stated below, we conclude that the district court
erred in permitting this Bivens claim to proceed. We therefore REVERSE the
order of the district court as to this claim and REMAND the case to the district
court with instructions to dismiss it.
BACKGROUND
I. Factual Allegations1
Doe, who graduated from high school in 2008, received an offer of
admission to West Point during her senior year, which she accepted. As a West
Point cadet, Doe was a member of the Army. 10 U.S.C. § 3075(b)(2). The
expectation upon enrollment was that, following her military training and
education at West Point — which, together with room and board, Doe received
without charge — she would serve at least five years of active duty. The West
Point curriculum, as Doe alleges in her Amended Complaint, “is designed to
train ‘officer‐leaders of character to serve the Army and the Nation.’” Joint
App’x 13.
The factual background presented here is derived from the allegations in Doe’s
Amended Complaint, which we accept as true and view in the light most favorable to
her in reviewing the district court’s decision on the motion to dismiss. See Starr Int’l
Co. v. Fed. Reserve Bank, 742 F.3d 37, 40 (2d Cir. 2014).
1
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Upon arrival at West Point, Doe, who was one of about 200 women among
the approximately 1,300 cadets in her class, alleges that she encountered what
she describes as a “male” and “misogynistic culture.” Id. at 14, 15. Cadets, for
example, sang sexually explicit and offensive chants while marching on campus,
“in view and earshot of faculty and administrators.” Id. at 16. Doe contends
that she “observed her cadet classmates making misogynistic and sexually
aggressive comments on a regular basis,” while “[t]he West Point administration
frequently ignored and sometimes condoned these comments.” Id. at 15. Doe
does not allege that Lieutenant General Hagenbeck or Brigadier General Rapp
engaged in any such conduct, but she does contend that they “created” the
culture there, which “marginalized” Doe and other female cadets and “caused
them to be subjected to routine harassment, [to] suffer emotional distress and
other harms, and [to] be pressured to conform to male norms.” Id. Doe also
maintains that West Point’s training on sexual assault and harassment was
inadequate “and did little to combat the overwhelmingly misogynistic culture of
the school.” Id. at 17.
In the early morning of May 9, 2010, during her second year at West Point,
Doe alleges that she was raped by a fellow cadet with whom she had gone
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walking after hours. In particular, Doe asserts that after taking a prescribed
sedative as she was preparing for bed, she agreed at about 1:00 a.m. to leave her
dormitory with this cadet (identified by Doe in her Amended Complaint only as
“Mr. Smith” (“Smith”)) in violation of West Point rules. Doe alleges that she
accepted only a few sips of alcohol from Smith but that, as a result of the
combined effects of the sedative and the alcohol, she “began to lose awareness of
her surroundings and consciousness of what she was doing.” Id. at 22. Doe
contends that Smith “was aware that [she] had lost consciousness and took
advantage,” attacking her and having “forcible, non‐consensual intercourse with
her.” Id. She also maintains that she does not remember the details of the
attack.
Doe sought care from West Point’s cadet health clinic the next day, which
provided her with emergency contraception and, on a subsequent visit on or
about May 11, tested her for sexually‐transmitted diseases. Although the
treating nurse allegedly informed Doe that she had signs of vaginal tearing, and
the medical record indicates Doe reported that she “was sexually assaulted by a
friend,” Doe states that the clinic “did not perform any forensic collection or
preservation of evidence of the sexual assault.” Id. at 23. During a regular
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appointment with her psychiatrist that day (a psychiatrist Doe began consulting,
she alleges, because of the significant stress she suffered due to West Point’s
oppressive atmosphere), Doe reported “nonconsensual sexual relations with a
friend,” and was referred to West Point’s Sexual Assault Response Counselor,
Major Maria Burger. Id.
Doe met only once with Major Burger. During that meeting, the major
explained to Doe that she could file either an “unrestricted” or a “restricted”
report about the incident. Id. An unrestricted report would have included
both Doe’s and her alleged assailant’s names and would have been given to
commanders for potential disciplinary action. A restricted report would
preserve their anonymity, but would not result in a referral. Doe filed a
restricted report. She alleges in her Amended Complaint that she feared
reputational harm or even retaliation from other cadets if she filed an
unrestricted report. She also worried that she would be punished for having
been out after hours and for consuming alcohol with her alleged assailant, and
that an unrestricted report would damage her career prospects because “[i]t was
common knowledge among the cadets that successful women in the military did
not report incidents of sexual assault.” Id.
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Doe contends that in the aftermath of the sexual assault, her anxiety grew
intolerable. Doe informed West Point that she would resign, and on August 13,
2010, she was honorably discharged. Doe thereafter enrolled in a civilian
college from which she earned a degree.
II. Procedural History
On April 26, 2013, Doe filed a complaint in the United States District Court
for the Southern District of New York (Hellerstein, J.).2 On September 4, 2013,
she filed an Amended Complaint. Therein, Doe pleaded four independent
causes of action: (1) a Bivens claim based on an alleged Fifth Amendment due
A redacted version of the Complaint was docketed, and an unredacted version
was filed under seal. The district court ordered the parties to show cause why the
Complaint should remain under seal, and Doe then filed a motion to seal the case. At
a hearing, the district court granted the motion in part, and denied it in part. It
granted Doe permission to proceed under a pseudonym, and it also ruled that she could
continue to redact from public filings the name of “Mr. Smith,” the man she alleged had
assaulted her. The district court decided that the names of the individual defendants
and the facts and circumstances of the alleged assault, however, should be disclosed.
No challenge has been presented on appeal to this manner of proceeding and we are
without the benefit of briefing on the question. We assume, arguendo, that the district
court did not abuse its discretion in determining to proceed in this manner and do not
address the matter further. But see, e.g., Doe v. Public Citizen, 749 F.3d 246, 275 (4th Cir.
2014) (holding that the district court’s sealing order “violated the public’s right of access
under the First Amendment and that the [district] court abused its discretion in allowing
Company Doe to proceed under a pseudonym”); Sealed Plaintiff v. Sealed Defendant, 537
F.3d 185, 189 (2d Cir. 2008) (indicating that “‘[t]he people have a right to know who is
using their courts,’” and describing “the relevant inquiry as a balancing test that weighs
the plaintiff’s need for anonymity against countervailing interests in full disclosure”
(quoting Doe v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield United, 112 F.3d 869, 872 (7th Cir. 1997))).
2
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process violation against Lieutenant General Hagenbeck and Brigadier General
Rapp; (2) a Bivens claim premised on an alleged Fifth Amendment equal
protection violation against Lieutenant General Hagenbeck and Brigadier
General Rapp; (3) a claim for breach of the covenant of good faith and fair
dealing under 28 U.S.C. § 1346(a)(2) (the “Little Tucker Act”) against the United
States; and (4) a Federal Tort Claims Act (“FTCA”), 28 U.S.C. §§ 1346(b), 2671–
2680, claim against the United States alleging negligent supervision, negligent
training, negligence, negligent infliction of emotional distress, and abuse of
process.
On September 20, 2013, defendants filed a motion to dismiss the Amended
Complaint, which Doe opposed. On April 13, 2015, the district court issued an
opinion and order granting in part and denying in part defendants’ motion.
The district court granted defendants’ motion as to the two claims against the
United States: the Little Tucker Act claim and the FTCA claim. The district
court also dismissed Doe’s Bivens claim asserting a violation of her due process
rights. These claims are not at issue in this interlocutory appeal.
The district court denied the motion to dismiss as to the Bivens claim in
which Doe asserted that Lieutenant General Hagenbeck and Brigadier General
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Rapp violated her equal protection rights. The district court acknowledged that
a Bivens remedy is not available “when ‘special factors counselling hesitation’ are
present,” Chappell v. Wallace, 462 U.S. 296, 298 (1983) (quoting Bivens, 403 U.S. at
396). It recognized that absent Congressional authorization for a money
damages claim, “[t]he need to insulate the military’s disciplinary structure from
judicial inquiry” constitutes a special factor. Doe v. Hagenbeck, 98 F. Supp. 3d
672, 684 (S.D.N.Y. 2015). Further, the court acknowledged the Supreme Court’s
instruction, in United States v. Stanley, that in the military context, the special
factors requiring abstention “extend [even] beyond the situation in which an
officer‐subordinate relationship exists, and require abstention in the inferring of
Bivens actions as extensive as the exception to the FTCA” established in Feres v.
United States, 340 U.S. 135 (1950), Stanley, 483 U.S. 669, 683–84 (1987). In the
district court’s view, however, “the primary reason for exercising judicial
restraint with cases concerning the military is ‘the need to preserve the military
disciplinary structure and prevent judicial involvement in sensitive military
matters.’” Doe, 98 F. Supp. 3d at 688 (quoting Wake v. United States, 89 F.3d 53,
57 (2d Cir. 1996)). The district court concluded that Doe’s claim, at least at the
motion to dismiss stage, did not implicate such concerns.
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Following the district court’s opinion, Lieutenant General Hagenbeck and
Brigadier General Rapp filed a notice of interlocutory appeal and moved for a
stay pending the appeal. In response, Doe argued that any appeal should be
pursued in the Federal Circuit instead of in the Second Circuit. The district
court granted the stay until August 7, 2015, “and such further period as the U.S.
Court of Appeals shall determine.” Joint App’x 9. The district court also
“note[d] Plaintiff’s position that any appeal should be pursued in the Federal
Circuit[] instead of the Second Circuit” and “le[ft] that determination for the
appellate courts.” Id. A panel of this Court thereafter granted defendants’
motion to stay the proceedings before the district court and denied Doe’s motion
to transfer venue.
DISCUSSION
Doe’s equal protection claim is based on the proposition that Lieutenant
General Hagenbeck and Brigadier General Rapp, her superior officers at the
time, “knowingly and intentionally created and enforced a policy and practice”
at West Point that “discriminated against female cadets,” “tolerated attacks
against [them] and discouraged reporting,” and promoted a “sexually aggressive
culture” there that caused Doe to suffer, inter alia, a sexual assault. Joint App’x
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29. The district court denied defendants’ motion to dismiss this claim,
concluding it should be permitted to proceed “unless it is evident from the
complaint, or shown by an answer and subsequent proofs, that military
discipline or its command structure is compromised.” Doe, 98 F. Supp. 3d at
689. We review the district court’s determination de novo. Warney v. Monroe
Cty., 587 F.3d 113, 120 (2d Cir. 2009).
In reviewing the denial of a motion to dismiss, we assume that the
allegations in Doe’s Amended Complaint are true and draw all reasonable
inferences from those allegations in her favor. Starr Int’l Co. v. Fed. Reserve Bank,
742 F.3d 37, 40 (2d Cir. 2014). Assuming their truth, Doe’s allegations of
harassment and abuse are no credit to West Point, an institution founded, as Doe
alleges, “to train ‘officer‐leaders of character to serve the Army and the Nation.’”
Joint App’x 13. But this neither does nor should end the judicial inquiry into
whether Doe’s Bivens claim may proceed.
Doe seeks to hold her superior officers personally liable for money
damages in connection with their decisions regarding the training, supervision,
discipline, education, and command of service personnel at West Point, an officer
training school and military base. But Congress, “the constitutionally
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authorized source of authority over the military system of justice, has not
provided a damages remedy” for the constitutional claim that Doe asserts.
Chappell, 462 U.S. at 304. The Supreme Court, citing the “inescapable demands
of military discipline . . . [that] cannot be taught on battlefields,” id. at 300, has
held, unanimously, that absent Congressional authorization, “it would be
inappropriate [for courts] to provide enlisted military personnel a Bivens‐type
remedy against their superior officers.” Id. at 304; see also id. at 305 (holding that
“enlisted military personnel may not maintain a suit to recover damages from a
superior officer for alleged constitutional violations”). We conclude that
Chappell and its progeny are dispositive of Doe’s Bivens claim and, accordingly,
that the district court erred in determining that Doe’s Bivens claim may proceed.
I
We start with Bivens itself. In Bivens, the Supreme Court permitted the
plaintiff, who alleged that he had been subjected to an unlawful, warrantless
search of his home and to an unlawful arrest, to proceed with a Fourth
Amendment damages claim against allegedly errant federal law enforcement
agents, despite the fact that Congress had not provided for such a remedy. 403
U.S. at 389, 395–97. Although the Bivens Court permitted this damages claim to
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proceed, it signaled, as the Court has repeatedly cautioned since, that “such a
remedy will not be available when ‘special factors counselling hesitation’ are
present.”3 Chappell, 462 U.S. at 298 (quoting Bivens, 403 U.S. at 396). The Court
has since made clear that it is “reluctant to extend Bivens liability ‘to any new
context or new category of defendants.’” Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 675 (2009)
(quoting Corr. Servs. Corp. v. Malesko, 534 U.S. 61, 68 (2001)). In the forty‐six years
since Bivens was decided, the Supreme Court has extended the precedent’s reach
only twice, 4 and it has otherwise consistently declined to broaden Bivens to
permit new claims.5 See Ziglar v. Abbasi, 137 S. Ct. 1843, 1857 (2017) (observing
The Court has in recent years prescribed a two‐step process for determining
whether a Bivens remedy is available in which we consider, first, whether an alternative
remedial scheme exists. See Wilkie v. Robbins, 551 U.S. 537, 550 (2007). In Stanley, the
Court suggested that traditional forms of redress, “designed to halt or prevent” a
constitutional violation “rather than [for] the award of money damages,” might
sometimes be available in the military context. 483 U.S. at 683. We nonetheless
assume arguendo that there is no alternative remedy here and address our analysis to
the Supreme Court’s admonition that “even in the absence of an alternative,” Wilkie, 551
U.S. at 550, courts must pay “particular heed” to “special factors counselling hesitation
before authorizing a new kind of federal litigation,” id. (quoting Bush v. Lucas, 462 U.S.
367, 378 (1983)); see also Stanley, 483 U.S. at 683 (noting that availability of alternative
remedy is “irrelevant” to special factors analysis).
3
See Carlson v. Green, 446 U.S. 14, 18–23 (1980) (finding an implied private cause
of action for a prisoner’s Eighth Amendment claim); Davis v. Passman, 442 U.S. 228, 230–
34 (1979) (finding an implied private cause of action for a congressional employee’s
employment discrimination claim under the Fifth Amendment).
4
See Minneci v. Pollard, 565 U.S. 118, 124–25 (2012) (collecting cases); see also, e.g.,
Malesko, 534 U.S. at 70–73 (no Bivens action for prisoner’s Eighth Amendment‐based suit
5
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that “the Court has made clear that expanding the Bivens remedy is now a
‘disfavored’ judicial activity,” and collecting cases in which the Supreme Court
has refused to do so (quoting Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 675)). Indeed, noting that “it is a
significant step under separation‐of‐powers principles for a court to determine
that it has the authority,” in effect, “to create and enforce a cause of action for
[money] damages against federal officials,” the Court only recently observed that
“it is possible that the analysis in the Court’s three Bivens cases might have been
different if they were decided today.” Id. at 1856.
The Supreme Court’s separation‐of‐powers concern with implied causes of
action under the Constitution, present in all cases in which plaintiffs have sought
to extend Bivens’s reach, is particularly acute in the military context. In Chappell,
the Supreme Court held that special factors counselled against permitting the
plaintiffs — enlisted Navy sailors who alleged that superior officers had
discriminated against them on the basis of race — to maintain Bivens money
damage claims. 462 U.S. at 297, 304. Referencing the “centuries of experience”
reflected in the military’s “hierarchical structure of discipline and obedience to
against a private corporation that managed a federal prison); Schweiker v. Chilicky, 487
U.S. 412, 414, 425–27 (1988) (no Bivens action for claim by recipients of Social Security
disability benefits that benefits had been denied in violation of the Fifth Amendment);
Bush, 462 U.S. at 386–90 (no Bivens action for claim that federal employer demoted
federal employee in violation of the First Amendment).
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command,” a structure “wholly different from civilian patterns,” id. at 300, the
Court concluded that civilian courts, not responsible for the lives of soldiers and
“ill‐equipped to determine the impact upon discipline” of their intrusions, id. at
305 (quoting Earl Warren, The Bill of Rights and the Military, 37 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 181,
187 (1962)), must “hesitate long” before entertaining suits which ask courts to
“tamper with the established relationship between enlisted military personnel
and their superior officers,” id. at 300. Congress, the Court unanimously said,
has “plenary control over rights, duties, and responsibilities in the framework of
the [m]ilitary [e]stablishment, including regulations, procedures and remedies
related to military discipline.” Id. at 301. In the absence of Congressional
action, the Court concluded, “enlisted military personnel may not maintain a suit
to recover damages from a superior officer for alleged constitutional violations.”
Id. at 305.
The Supreme Court was, if anything, even more emphatic in Stanley. The
Court ruled there that the plaintiff — a former soldier alleging that the Army had
secretly given him doses of LSD to study the drug’s effects — could not maintain
a Bivens action, even though at least some of the defendants in the case were not
Stanley’s superior military officers (thus not directly implicating Chappell’s
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chain‐of‐command concerns) and “may well have been civilian personnel.” 483
U.S. at 679; see id. at 671, 680–84. Citing by way of analogy to its decision in
Feres, which established that “the Government is not liable under the Federal
Tort Claims Act for injuries to servicemen where the injuries arise out of or are in
the course of activity incident to service,” 340 U.S. at 146, the Stanley Court
explained that there is no “reason why [its] judgment in the Bivens context
should be any less protective of military concerns than it has been with respect to
FTCA suits, where [it] adopted [the] ‘incident to service’ rule,” 483 U.S. at 681.
The Court thus concluded — in sweeping language — that in the military
context, even where no “officer‐subordinate relationship exists,” the reach of the
special factors counselling “abstention in the inferring of Bivens actions” is “as
extensive as the exception to the FTCA established by Feres.” Id. at 683–84.
Accordingly, pursuant to the incident‐to‐service rule, “no Bivens remedy is
available for injuries that ‘arise out of or are in the course of activity incident to
service.’” Id. at 684 (quoting Feres, 340 U.S. at 146).
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II
This Supreme Court precedent frames our inquiry and leads ineluctably to
the conclusion that Doe cannot maintain her Bivens claim. Doe was a member
of the military at the time the events giving rise to her claim occurred, and the
claim concerns superior officers. Further, her claim calls into question “basic
choices about the discipline, supervision, and control” of service personnel and
would “require[ ] the civilian court to second‐guess military decisions,” thus
triggering the incident‐to‐service rule.6 United States v. Shearer, 473 U.S. 52, 57–
58 (1985) (noting that allegations “go[ing] directly to the ‘management’ of the
military” that “might impair essential military discipline” lie at the “core” of
rule’s concerns). In such circumstances, her Bivens claim must be dismissed.
At the start, by statute, a West Point cadet is a member of the military.
“The Regular Army is [a] component of the Army” and “includes . . . cadets of
Given that the Chappell Court squarely held that “military personnel may not
maintain a suit to recover damages from a superior officer for alleged constitutional
violations” (although the question presented in that case concerned violations “in the
course of military service”), 462 U.S. at 297, 305, and the Stanley Court only broadened
Chappell’s holding, see 483 U.S. at 683 (explaining that Chappell’s reasoning “extend[s]
beyond the situation in which an officer‐subordinate relationship exists”), resolution of
this case may not require an incident‐to‐service inquiry at all. Nonetheless, consistent
with the approach of our sister circuits, see Klay v. Panetta, 758 F.3d 369, 374 (D.C. Cir.
2014); Cioca v. Rumsfeld, 720 F.3d 505, 512–14 (4th Cir. 2013), we apply the
incident‐to‐service rule here and reach the same result we would have reached under
Chappell alone.
6
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the United States Military Academy,” 10 U.S.C. § 3075, who swear an oath to “at
all times obey the legal orders of [their] superior officers, and the Uniform Code
of Military Justice,” id. § 4346(d). For this reason, in the context of the FTCA,
courts citing Feres have reliably applied the doctrine of intramilitary immunity to
bar suits brought by service academy cadets whenever such suits implicate the
incident‐to‐service rule. See, e.g., Miller v. United States, 42 F.3d 297, 301, 308 (5th
Cir. 1995); Collins v. United States, 642 F.2d 217, 218 (7th Cir. 1981). This Circuit,
moreover, has recognized that the rule also applies in the context of suits
brought by students who are part of the Reserve Officer Training Corps at
nonmilitary schools. See Wake, 89 F.3d at 55, 58–59, 62.
Next, Doe’s alleged injuries clearly are covered by the Supreme Court’s
holding in Stanley that “no Bivens remedy is available for injuries that ‘arise out
of or are in the course of activity incident to service.’” 483 U.S. at 684 (quoting
Feres, 340 U.S. at 146). As the Supreme Court recognized in Shearer when
applying the incident‐to‐service rule, when a claim on its face “requires the
civilian court to second‐guess military decisions,” and when the complaint, fairly
read, calls into question “the ‘management’ of the military” — that is, “basic
choices about the discipline, supervision, and control” of service personnel — we
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are “at the core” of the rule’s concerns. 473 U.S. at 57–58. In such
circumstances, we do not inquire into “the extent to which particular suits would
call into question military discipline and decisionmaking.” Stanley, 483 U.S. at
682. Instead, such cases “require abstention,” id. at 683, so as to avoid
interference with “the necessarily unique structure of the military establishment”
and to defer to the Framers who, “well aware of the differences between
[military] and civilian life” and cognizant of the issues that might in future arise,
granted “plenary authority to Congress . . . ‘[t]o make Rules for the Government
and Regulation of the land and naval Forces,’” Chappell, 462 U.S. at 300–01
(emphasis added) (quoting U.S. Const. art. 1, § 8, cl. 14).
Here, in considering whether Doe’s injuries occurred “incident to service,”
we examine the specific factual allegations that underlie her equal protection
claim.7 See Klay v. Panetta, 758 F.3d 369, 375 (D.C. Cir. 2014) (noting that the
We have suggested that in some circumstances — for instance, where an issue
exists for FTCA purposes as to whether a given automobile accident occurred “within a
distinctly military sphere of activity,” see Wake, 89 F.3d at 58 — the incident‐to‐service
inquiry may require the analysis of potentially relevant factors, such as the relationship
of the activity at issue to membership in the service or the location of the conduct giving
rise to the tort claim. Id. No such close analysis is necessary here, however, given the
clear relationship between Doe’s Bivens claim and management and discipline at West
Point. In any event, we note that the balance of the relevant factors we identified in
Wake are clearly present here. Doe was a member of the Army; her tuition‐free
presence at West Point (and access to the facilities therein) was a benefit conferred as a
result of that membership; and her constitutional claim arises from her treatment at
7
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incident‐to‐service rule bars Bivens claims when litigating “the plaintiff’s theory
of the case” would, in effect, “require military leaders to defend their
professional management choices”). The allegations in Doe’s Amended
Complaint do not merely invite, but require a most wide‐ranging inquiry into the
commands of Lieutenant General Hagenbeck and Brigadier General Rapp.
Specifically, as they relate to these defendants’ conduct, Doe’s allegations center
on the implementation and supervision of allegedly inadequate and harmful
training and education programs relating to sexual assault and harassment; on
the alleged failure to provide properly both for the report and investigation of
sexual assault claims, and for the support of cadets who are assaulted; on the
alleged lack of sufficient numbers of female faculty and administrators at West
Point and on the failure to recruit female cadets; on the allegedly inadequate
punishment meted out not only to perpetrators of sexual violence but also to
those who engage in misogynistic chants, slurs and comments; and, most
broadly, on the assertedly culpable tolerance of a hostile culture toward women
at West Point. Adjudicating such a money damages claim would require a
West Point, where she resided and was training to become an officer. See id. at 57
(identifying “status as a member of the military,” “the location of the conduct giving
rise to the underlying tort claim,” and “whether the service member was taking
advantage of a privilege or enjoying a benefit conferred as a result of military service”
as among relevant factors).
22
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civilian court to engage in searching fact‐finding about Lieutenant General
Hagenbeck and Brigadier General Rapp’s “basic choices about the discipline,
supervision, and control” of the cadets that they were responsible for training as
future officers. Shearer, 473 U.S. at 58. In such circumstances, we conclude that
Chappell and Stanley squarely foreclose Doe’s Bivens claim.
This conclusion, we note, is consistent with the recent decisions of at least
two other circuits. The D.C. Circuit rejected as “patently deficient” a Bivens
claim pressed by current and former sailors and Marines who alleged they were
the victims of sexual assault or harassment resulting from a military culture
attributable to their superiors: “If adjudicating the case would require military
leaders to defend their professional management choices — ‘to convince a
civilian court of the wisdom of a wide range of military and disciplinary
decisions’ — then the claim is barred by the ‘incident to service’ test.” Klay, 758
F.3d at 370, 375 (citation omitted) (quoting Shearer, 473 U.S. at 58). The Fourth
Circuit, addressing a similar claim, was equally clear: “Bivens suits are never
permitted for constitutional violations arising from military service, no matter
how severe the injury or how egregious the rights infringement.” Cioca v.
Rumsfeld, 720 F.3d 505, 512 (4th Cir. 2013) (quoting Erwin Chemerinsky, Federal
23
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Jurisdiction 621–22 (5th ed. 2007)). This result, the Fourth Circuit said, implies
no tolerance for the misconduct alleged in a plaintiff’s pleading, but rather
reflects “the judicial deference to Congress and the Executive Branch in matters
of military oversight required by the Constitution and our fidelity to the
Supreme Court’s consistent refusal to create new implied causes of action in this
context.” Id. at 518; see also id. at 514 (noting that “the Chappell, Stanley, Feres and
Shearer precedents mandate that courts not permit a Bivens action that challenges
military decisionmaking”).
Doe argues, relying principally on United States v. Virginia (VMI), 518 U.S.
515 (1996), that the failure to afford her a Bivens claim against Lieutenant General
Hagenbeck and Brigadier General Rapp “contradict[s] VMI,” Doe’s Br. at 15,
specifically the Supreme Court’s merits determination therein that the State of
Virginia could not preclude women from attending the Virginia Military
Institute, a public college that styles itself as providing a military education.8
VMI, 518 U.S. at 519. But this argument misses the point. Lieutenant General
The Institute is not affiliated with the U.S. armed forces, nor are its students, by
virtue of their enrollment there, members of the United States military. Cf. id. at 520–
22 (describing the Institute as a state military college both financially supported by, and
subject to control by, the Virginia General Assembly, and noting that it differs from
federal service academies because it prepares students for both military and civilian
life).
8
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Hagenbeck and Brigadier General Rapp do not seek dismissal based on the scope
of equal protection guarantees — a subject to which VMI could be pertinent.
Instead, they invoke binding Supreme Court precedent standing for the
proposition that whatever the scope of the particular constitutional rights at
issue, the remedy of money damages is unavailable to members of the armed
services for violations of those rights where Congress has not acted and the
incident‐to‐service rule is satisfied.
Chappell itself involved an equal protection claim by African American
enlisted personnel who alleged that their superior officers “failed to assign them
desirable duties, threatened them, gave them low performance evaluations, and
imposed penalties of unusual severity,” all on account of their race. 462 U.S. at
297; see Wallace v. Chappell, 661 F.2d 729, 730 (9th Cir. 1981). Despite the gravity
of these allegations, and with no disparagement of the right at stake, the Court,
noting that Congress “has established a comprehensive internal system of justice
to regulate military life” and “has not provided a damages remedy for claims by
military personnel that constitutional rights have been violated by superior
officers,” determined that a Bivens remedy was unavailable. Id. at 302–04. As
the Court unanimously recognized, “[j]udges are not given the task of running
25
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the Army. The responsibility for setting up channels through which . . .
grievances can be considered and fairly settled rests upon the Congress and
upon the President of the United States and his subordinates.” Id. at 301
(second alteration in original) (quoting Orloff v. Willoughby, 345 U.S. 83, 93–94
(1953)). VMI is simply not germane to the remedial inquiry mandated by
Chappell, Stanley, and other Bivens cases.
Doe next contends, and the dissent agrees, that pursuant to this Court’s
decision in Taber v. Maine, 67 F.3d 1029 (2d Cir. 1995), her injuries did not arise
incident to military service. This is also incorrect. Taber involved an FTCA
claim brought by an off‐duty Navy Seabee who was injured in an automobile
accident by another off‐duty Navy serviceman. Id. at 1032. This Court
concluded in Taber that the question whether Feres barred the plaintiff’s FTCA
claim turned, in the circumstances of that case, on whether a person in Taber’s
position would be entitled to workers’ compensation benefits on the theory that
when injured he was engaged in activities that “fell within the scope of [his]
military employment.” Id. at 1050. Whatever Taber’s significance to this
Circuit’s FTCA case law, the Taber panel had no occasion to address either
Chappell or Stanley, or the scope of “abstention in the inferring of Bivens actions”
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more generally.9 Stanley, 483 U.S. at 683. Moreover, even in the FTCA context,
Taber itself noted, citing Supreme Court precedent, that the incident‐to‐service
rule (regardless of workers’ compensation considerations) is properly invoked
when adjudicating the claim of a service member would require “‘commanding
officers . . . to stand prepared to convince a civilian court of the wisdom of a wide
range of military and disciplinary decisions.’” 67 F.3d at 1049 (quoting Shearer,
473 U.S. at 58). This is precisely the problem with Doe’s claim here.
Doe attempts to avoid this conclusion by arguing that her damages claim
“does not interfere with military discipline or management . . . because she only
questions school management” — the decisions of Lieutenant General Hagenbeck
and Brigadier General Rapp “made in their roles as school administrators — not
As a matter of this Circuit’s FTCA precedent, moreover, it is noteworthy that
only some nine months after the amended decision in Taber, this Court in Wake
suggested that to the extent the appellant there argued that Taber had created a new
“scope of employment” test for determining the applicability of the Feres doctrine, Taber
could not be read to alter the reach of Feres, which was then and remains binding
precedent. 89 F.3d at 61. This Circuit has not relied on Taber’s holding in the
intervening twenty‐plus years, and at least one other circuit has declined to employ its
approach. See Skees v. United States, 107 F.3d 421, 425 n.3 (6th Cir. 1997) (declining to
adopt Taber). In such circumstances, Taber is a thin reed, indeed, to support the
dissent’s position that we may properly entertain a Bivens claim here, despite the broad
inquiry that Doe’s allegations demand into the discipline, supervision, and control of
cadets at West Point, on the theory that Doe, when allegedly assaulted while out after
hours, was not “‘engaged in activities that fell within the scope of [her] military
employment,’” Dissenting Op. at 21 (citing Taber, 67 F.3d at 1050).
9
27
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as military officials.” Doe’s Br. at 36. The dissent, too, takes this tack. 10
Observing, dismissively, that West Point serves a military purpose “to some
extent,” Dissenting Op. at 23 (emphasis added), the dissent claims that the
“incident to service” rule does not apply because at the time that Doe was
allegedly assaulted, she was “out for an evening walk on a college campus,” id.
at 22, and because, more broadly, Doe while at West Point was not a soldier on
the battlefield, but a student attending college. Id. at 22–23. “West Point
functions principally as a school,” the dissent urges, and “Doe was primarily a
student.” Id. at 24.
With respect, this analysis is both contrary to the case law and
unsupported by the factual allegations in Doe’s Amended Complaint. As Doe
The dissent in addition urges that defendants allegedly violated military
regulations in connection with Doe’s tenure at West Point and that “[j]udicial review of
. . . allegations that the individual defendants failed to follow mandatory military . . .
regulations would not unduly interfere” with the military’s proper operation.
Dissenting Op. at 27. Suffice it to say that the dissent cites no case law supporting the
proposition that the availability of a Bivens damages suit turns on this contingency, and
unsurprisingly, since such an approach would be inconsistent with courts’ traditional
reluctance “to intrude upon the authority of the Executive in military and national
security affairs’ unless ‘Congress specifically has provided otherwise.’” Ziglar, 137
S. Ct. at 1861 (quoting Dep’t of Navy v. Egan, 484 U.S. 518, 530 (1988)); see also id. at 1858
(citing Chappell and Stanley in suggesting that Congress’s exercise of regulatory
authority “in a guarded way” constitutes a special factor counselling against
recognition of a Bivens claim on the ground that it is “less likely that Congress would
want the Judiciary to interfere”).
10
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has acknowledged, the United States Military Academy at West Point has a
single, unitary mission: to “train ‘officer‐leaders of character to serve the Army
and the Nation.’” Joint App’x 13. Its cadets swear an oath to “at all times obey
the legal orders of . . . superior officers, and the Uniform Code of Military
Justice,” 10 U.S.C. § 4346(d) (emphasis added), and are subject to military
discipline pursuant to the Code, id. § 802(a)(2). Cadets are divided into
companies, each commanded by an Army officer, “for the purpose of military
instruction,” id. § 4349(a), and are “trained in the duties of members of the
Army,” id. § 4349(e), and even paid as members of the Army, 37 U.S.C. § 203(c).
Doe’s contention that this Court might disaggregate those aspects of cadets’ lives
that concern “education” from those involving their training to be future officers
— a contention entirely unsupported by allegations in the Amended Complaint
— is thus fanciful, at best, because academic and military pursuits are
inextricably intertwined at the United States Military Academy, which exists for
“the instruction and preparation for military service” of Army members.11 10
U.S.C. § 4331(a).
Moreover, even assuming such disaggregation could be done, it is directly
contrary to Stanley’s admonition against inquiring whether “particular suits,” examined
case by case, “would call into question military discipline and decisionmaking.” 483
U.S. at 682–83. Such inquiries, the Stanley Court concluded, “raising the prospect of
11
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As Chappell recognized, “[t]he inescapable demands of military discipline
and obedience to orders cannot be taught on battlefields,” and “conduct in
combat inevitably reflects the training that precedes combat.” 462 U.S. at 300.
Doe was not “a soldier on a battlefield” at the time of the events challenged here,
as the dissent points out. Dissenting Op. at 23. This observation, however, is
beside the point. As a member of the Army, Doe was training at West Point to
lead battlefield soldiers. Adjudicating the claim she brings against her superior
officers, moreover, which charges them with “creat[ing] a dangerous and
sexually hostile environment,” Joint App’x 28, and challenges matters ranging
from the alleged “underrepresentation of women in the school administration”
and among the cadet classes, id. at 14, to the alleged tolerance of “sexually
aggressive language and conduct by faculty, officials and male cadets,” id. at 28,
would require a civilian court to examine a host of military decisions regarding
aspects of West Point’s culture, as well as the supervision of West Point cadets,
their training and education, and their discipline by superior officers. Doe’s
claim thus “strikes at the core” of the concerns implicated by the
incident‐to‐service rule: that civilian courts are ill‐equipped “to second‐guess
compelled depositions and trial testimony by military officers concerning the details of
their military commands,” would themselves “disrupt the military regime.” Id.
30
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military decisions” regarding “basic choices about the discipline, supervision,
and control” of service members, Shearer, 473 U.S. at 57–58, that doing so could
impair “military discipline and effectiveness” in unintended and unforeseen
ways, id. at 59, and that the “explicit constitutional authorization for Congress
‘[t]o make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval
Forces,’” counsels hesitation as to the wisdom of money damages litigation,
where Congress has not authorized it, Stanley, 483 U.S. at 681–82 (quoting U.S.
Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 14).
In sum, West Point is part of the Department of the Army. Its cadets are
service members. Lieutenant General Hagenbeck was the commanding officer
of a military base during his time at West Point, and Brigadier General Rapp
commanded the cadets. The future officers who study and train at West Point,
like the enlisted men and women they are trained to command, may not invoke
Bivens to recover damages for injuries that “arise out of or are in the course of
activity incident to service.” Stanley, 483 U.S. at 684. Doe’s Bivens claim
against her superior officers, implicating Army training, supervision, discipline,
education, and command, triggers the incident‐to‐service rule and cannot
proceed.
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CONCLUSION
We note, as did the D.C. Circuit, that Congress “has been ‘no idle
bystander to th[e] debate’ about sexual assault in the military.” Klay, 758 F.3d at
376 (alteration in original) (quoting Lebron v. Rumsfeld, 670 F.3d 540, 551 (4th Cir.
2012)). In reversing the district court’s determination as to the viability of Doe’s
Bivens claim, we do not discount the seriousness of her allegations, nor their
potential significance to West Point’s administration. As the Supreme Court has
made clear, however, it is for Congress to determine whether affording a money
damages remedy is appropriate for a claim of the sort that Doe asserts. We
therefore join the D.C. Circuit and the Fourth Circuit in concluding that no Bivens
remedy is available here. We accordingly need not reach the question whether
Lieutenant General Hagenbeck and Brigadier General Rapp are entitled to
qualified immunity.
For the foregoing reasons, we REVERSE the order of the district court, and
REMAND to the district court with instructions to dismiss Doe’s equal
protection claim.
32
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