Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. et al v. United States Food and Drug Administration et al
Filing
94
DECLARATION of William T. Flynn in Support re: 92 MOTION to Stay re: 70 Memorandum & Opinion,, pending appeal. MOTION to Stay re: 70 Memorandum & Opinion,, pending appeal.. Document filed by Center for Veterinary Medicine, Bernadette Dunham, Margaret Hamburg, Kathleen Sebelius, United States Department of Health and Human Services, United States Food and Drug Administration. (Attachments: # 1 Exhibit A, # 2 Exhibit B, # 3 Exhibit C)(Barcelo, Amy)
#209
Guidance for Industry
The Judicious Use of Medically Important
Antimicrobial Drugs in Food-Producing Animals
Submit comments on this guidance at any time. Submit written comments to the Division
of Dockets Management (HFA-305), Food and Drug Administration, 5630 Fishers Lane,
Room 1061, Rockville, MD 20852. Submit electronic comments on the guidance at
http://www.regulations.gov. All written comments should be identified with the Docket
No. FDA-2010-D-0094.
For further information regarding this document, contact William T. Flynn, Center for
Veterinary Medicine (HFV-1), Food and Drug Administration, 7519 Standish Place,
Rockville, MD 20855, 240-276-9084. E-mail: william.flynn@fda.hhs.gov.
Additional copies of this guidance document may be requested from the Communications
Staff (HFV-12), Center for Veterinary Medicine, Food and Drug Administration, 7519
Standish Place, Rockville, MD 20855, and may be viewed on the Internet at either
http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/GuidanceComplianceEnforcement/GuidanceforIndu
stry/default.htm or http://www.regulations.gov.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Food and Drug Administration
Center for Veterinary Medicine
April 13, 2012
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Executive Summary........................................................................................................... 3
II. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 4
III. Key Reports and Peer-Reviewed Scientific Literature on the Issue ............................... 5
IV. Strategies for Controlling Antimicrobial Resistance Are Needed ................................ 17
V. Current Regulatory Framework ..................................................................................... 18
VI. Status of FDA’s Current Activities............................................................................... 19
VII. Recommended Principles Regarding Judicious Use in Animals ................................ 20
VIII. Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 22
IX. References..................................................................................................................... 23
2
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
The Judicious Use of Medically Important Antimicrobial Drugs
in Food-Producing Animals
This guidance represents the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) current thinking on
this topic. It does not create or confer any rights for or on any person and does not operate to
bind FDA or the public. You can use an alternative approach if the approach satisfies the
requirements of the applicable statutes and regulations. If you want to discuss an alternative
approach, contact the FDA staff responsible for implementing this guidance. If you cannot
identify the appropriate FDA staff, call the number listed on the previous page of this
guidance.
I. Executive Summary
Antimicrobial drugs have been widely used in human and veterinary medicine for more
than 50 years, with tremendous benefits to both human and animal health. The development
of resistance to this important class of drugs, and the resulting loss of their effectiveness as
antimicrobial therapies, poses a serious public health threat. Misuse and overuse of
antimicrobial drugs creates selective evolutionary pressure that enables antimicrobial
resistant bacteria to increase in numbers more rapidly than antimicrobial susceptible bacteria
and thus increases the opportunity for individuals to become infected by resistant bacteria.
Because antimicrobial drug use contributes to the emergence of drug resistant organisms,
these important drugs must be used judiciously in both animal and human medicine to slow
the development of resistance. Efforts have been made to promote the judicious use of these
drugs in humans (see http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/index.html) as well as in animals (see
http://www.avma.org/issues/default.asp). Using these drugs judiciously means that
unnecessary or inappropriate use should be avoided. The focus of this document is on the
use of medically important antimicrobial drugs 1 in food-producing animals. Based on a
consideration of the available scientific information, FDA is providing a framework for the
voluntary adoption of practices to ensure the appropriate or judicious use of medically
important antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animals. This framework includes the
principles of phasing in such measures as 1) limiting medically important antimicrobial drugs
to uses in food-producing animals that are considered necessary for assuring animal health;
and 2) limiting such drugs to uses in food-producing animals that include veterinary
oversight or consultation. Developing strategies for reducing antimicrobial resistance is
critically important for protecting both public and animal health. Collaboration involving the
public, the public health, animal health, and animal agriculture communities on the
development and implementation of such strategies is needed to assure that the public health
is protected while also assuring that such strategies are feasible and that the health needs of
animals are addressed.
1
The term “medically important antimicrobial drugs” generally refers to antimicrobial drugs that are
important for therapeutic use in humans.
3
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
FDA’s guidance documents, including this guidance, do not establish legally
enforceable responsibilities. Instead, guidances describe the Agency’s current
thinking on a topic and should be viewed only as recommendations, unless specific
regulatory or statutory requirements are cited. The use of the word “should” in
Agency guidances means that something is suggested or recommended, but not
required.
II. Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance 2, and the resulting failure of antimicrobial therapies in
humans, is a mounting public health problem of global significance. This phenomenon is
driven by many factors including the use of antimicrobial drugs in both humans and
animals. In regard to animal use, this document addresses the use of medically important
antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animals for production or growth-enhancing
purposes. These uses, referred to as production 3 uses throughout this document, are
typically administered through the feed or water on a herd- or flock-wide basis and are
approved for such uses as increasing rate of weight gain or improving feed efficiency.
Unlike other uses of these drugs in animals (e.g., for the treatment, control, and prevention
of disease), these “production uses” are not intended to manage a specific disease that may
be ongoing or at risk of occurring, but rather are expressly indicated and used for the
purpose of enhancing the production of animal-derived products (e.g., increasing rate of
weight gain or improving feed efficiency). This document summarizes some of the key
reports and scientific literature related to the use of antimicrobial drugs in animal
agriculture and outlines FDA’s current thinking on strategies for assuring that medically
important antimicrobial drugs are used judiciously in food-producing animals in order to
help minimize antimicrobial resistance development. In finalizing this guidance, FDA has
considered comments that were submitted to the docket, and other relevant information. If
you have additional relevant information, please submit it to the docket at any time. We
are particularly interested in any new information regarding the use of medically important
antimicrobials in food-producing animals and its impact on the development of drugresistant bacteria.
2
The term “antimicrobial” refers broadly to drugs with activity against a variety of microorganisms including
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Antimicrobial drugs that have specific activity against bacteria are
referred to as antibacterial or antibiotic drugs. However, the broader term “antimicrobial,” commonly used in
reference to drugs with activity against bacteria, is used in this document interchangeably with the terms
antibacterial or antibiotic. Antimicrobial resistance is the ability of bacteria or other microbes to resist the
effects of a drug. Antimicrobial resistance, as it relates to bacterial organisms, occurs when bacteria change
in some way that reduces or eliminates the effectiveness of drugs, chemicals, or other agents designed to treat
bacterial infections.
3
Production uses are also referred to as “nontherapeutic” or “subtherapeutic” uses, terms that we believe lack
sufficient clarity.
4
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
III. Key Reports and Peer-Reviewed Scientific Literature on the Issue
Questions regarding the use of antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animals have
been raised and debated for many years. A variety of recognized international,
governmental, and professional organizations have studied the issue. We have briefly
summarized below the findings and recommendations from some of the notable reports that
have addressed this issue over the past 40 years. These reports provide context to FDA’s
current thinking on this issue, and highlight the longstanding concerns that have been the
subject of discussion in the scientific community as a whole.
We have also provided a list below of some of the more recent primary scientific
literature that FDA has considered. This is not intended to represent an exhaustive
summary of the scientific literature, but rather to highlight some of the more recent
scientific research related to the use of antimicrobial drugs in animal agriculture and the
impact of such use on antimicrobial resistance. We acknowledge that a significant body of
scientific information exists, including some information that may present equivocal
findings or contrary views.
Unless otherwise indicated, the page numbers cited in this section refer to the
relevant page numbers in the referenced report. A complete list of the reports summarized
in this section is provided at Section IX of this document.
Reports Prepared by Various International, Governmental, and Professional
Organizations
1969 Report of the Joint Committee on the Use of Antibiotics in Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Medicine
In July 1968, a Joint Committee was established in the United Kingdom to obtain
information regarding the use of antibiotics in animal husbandry and veterinary medicine,
particularly with respect to antibiotic resistance. This report, often referred to as the
“Swann Report,” was presented to Parliament in November 1969 by the Secretary of State
for Social Services, the Secretary of State for Scotland, the Minister of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food, and the Secretary of State for Wales. The report concluded that the
administration of antimicrobials to food-producing animals, particularly at subtherapeutic
levels, poses a hazard to human and animal health.
The report stated, “It is clear that there has been a dramatic increase over the years in
the numbers of strains of enteric bacteria of animal origin which show resistance to one or
more antibiotics. Further, these resistant strains are able to transmit this resistance to other
bacteria. This resistance has resulted from the use of antibiotics for growth promotion and
other purposes in farm livestock” (Ref. 1, p. 60). The report also noted, “There is ample
and incontrovertible evidence to show that man may commonly ingest enteric bacteria of
animal origin” (Ref. 1, p. 60).
5
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
The report provided a number of recommendations including that only antimicrobials
which "have little or no application as therapeutic agents in man or animals and will not
impair the efficacy of a prescribed therapeutic drug or drugs through the development of
resistant strains of organisms" should be used without prescription in animal feed (Ref. 1, p.
61). Furthermore, the report concluded that antimicrobials used for therapeutic purposes in
food-producing animals should remain available but only under veterinary supervision.
1970 FDA Task Force Report, “The Use of Antibiotics in Animal Feed”
In April 1970, FDA established a task force of scientists to undertake a
comprehensive review of the use of antibiotics in animal feed (Ref. 2). The task force
included ten specialists on infectious diseases and animal science from FDA, the National
Institutes of Health, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, as well as five consultants from universities and industry.
This task force acknowledged that the understanding at the time it conducted its study
was that the use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals, especially in subtherapeutic
amounts, was associated with the development of resistant bacteria, and that treated animals
might serve as a reservoir of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens that could produce human
disease.
The recommendations of the Task Force included that antimicrobial drugs used in
human clinical medicine that failed to meet certain guidelines established by the Task Force
should be prohibited from growth promotion and any subtherapeutic use in food-producing
animals by certain dates. Furthermore, those antimicrobials that failed to meet the guidelines
should be limited to short-term therapeutic use and use only by a veterinarian or on a
veterinarian’s prescription.
As a consequence of the 1970 Task Force report, requirements for data to address
microbiological safety concerns for subtherapeutic uses of antimicrobials in food-producing
animals were outlined in the Code of Federal Regulations (21 CFR 558.15). Sponsors of
antibiotic products administered in animal feed for subtherapeutic purposes were required to
submit study results demonstrating that their product did not promote bacterial drug
resistance. Depending on the class of drug, sponsors were required to submit all information
to the agency on the impact of their drug on enteric salmonella in treated animals by specific
dates.
1980 National Academy of Sciences Report, “The Effects on Human Health of
Subtherapeutic Use of Antimicrobial Drugs in Animal Feeds”
In 1977, FDA proposed to withdraw the new animal drug approvals for
subtherapeutic uses of penicillin and tetracyclines in animal feed on the ground that
evidence showed that these drugs, when used for such purposes in animal feed, had not
been shown to be safe. These two drugs were chosen because of their importance in human
medicine. The proposal was criticized because, at that time, there was not adequate
epidemiological evidence (or only just-emerging evidence) to show that drug-resistant
6
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
bacteria of animal origin were commonly transmitted to humans and caused serious illness.
Subsequently, Congress directed FDA to conduct further studies related to the use of
antimicrobials in animal feed and to hold in abeyance the implementation of the proposed
antimicrobial withdrawal actions pending the outcome of these studies.
In accordance with Congress’ directive to conduct further studies, FDA contracted
with the National Academy of Science to conduct a study of the safety issues related to the
use of antimicrobials in animal feed. In particular, FDA asked the National Academy of
Science to: 1) study the human health effects of the subtherapeutic use of penicillin and
tetracycline in animal feed; 2) review and analyze published and unpublished data relevant
to assessing human health consequences of such use; 3) assess the scientific feasibility of
additional epidemiological studies; and (4) make recommendations about additional
research needed.
The National Academy of Sciences issued a study report in 1980. The study report
concluded that a very limited amount of epidemiological research had been completed on
either the subtherapeutic or therapeutic use of antimicrobials in animal feed. According to
the study report, much of the information available on the subject involved “poorly
controlled studies of small numbers of subjects for brief periods” (Ref. 3, p. 52). Based on
a consideration of available evidence, the report concluded that existing data could neither
prove nor disprove the postulated hazards to human health from subtherapeutic
antimicrobial use in animal feed. However, the report cautioned that “The lack of data
linking human illness with subtherapeutic levels of antimicrobials must not be equated with
proof that the proposed hazards do not exist. The research necessary to establish and
measure a definitive risk has not been conducted and, indeed, may not be possible” (Ref. 3,
p. 53).
1984 Seattle-King County Study: “Surveillance of the Flow of Salmonella and
Campylobacter in a Community”
As noted above, Congress directed FDA to hold in abeyance any implementation of the
proposed withdrawal of new animal drug approvals for the subtherapeutic uses of penicillin
and tetracyclines in animal feed, pending completion of additional studies related to the use
of antimicrobials in animal feed. Therefore, in addition to the National Academy of
Sciences study described above, the FDA also contracted with the Seattle-King County
Health Department to complete a study intended to provide additional information
regarding potential public health concerns regarding the use of antimicrobial drugs in
animal feed. Under the contract, the Communicable Disease Control Section of the
Seattle-King County Health Department was tasked with studying the relationship between
the occurrence of Salmonella spp. (Salmonella) and Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) in
foods of animal origin and the occurrence of human illness caused by those two organisms.
These two organisms, Salmonella and C. jejuni, were chosen to serve as models to estimate
the flow of potentially pathogenic bacteria from animals to man through the food chain.
The study involved a two-pronged surveillance system that included sampling of retail
meats over a 20 month period and simultaneous investigation of Salmonella and C. jejuni
enteritis cases in humans. Bacterial isolates from food and human cases were subjected to
7
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
antibiotic susceptibility testing, plasmid analysis, and serotyping. In 1984, the Seattle-King
County Health Department prepared a report summarizing the results of the study. The
1984 study report found that C. jejuni was a more common cause of enteritis than
Salmonella. Also, it concluded that C. jejuni "does appear to flow from chickens to man
via consumption of poultry products" (Ref. 4, p. 3). The report stated, "isolates from
human cases and those from retail poultry had similar antibiotic susceptibility patterns,
including prevalence of 29.7% and 32.8%, respectively, for tetracycline resistance, which
was found to be plasmid-mediated" (Ref. 4, p. 3).
1988 Institute of Medicine (IOM) Report: “Human Health Risks with the Subtherapeutic
Use of Penicillin or Tetracyclines in Animal Feed”
In 1987, FDA asked the IOM to conduct an independent review of the human health
risks associated with the subtherapeutic use of penicillin and tetracycline in animal feed.
IOM established a committee and directed it to perform “a quantitative risk assessment” of
these human health consequences and to “assess the adequacy of the existing human health
data and use such data to arrive at an estimate of risk” (Ref. 5, p. iii). If quantification of
human health risks was not possible due to inadequate data, the Committee was to evaluate
the scientific information that had become available since the 1980 National Academy of
Science report cited above.
The Committee developed a risk-analysis model, using data only on Salmonella
infections that resulted in human death. However, the Committee was unable to find a
substantial body of direct evidence demonstrating that the subtherapeutic use of penicillin
or tetracycline in animal feed posed a human health hazard. Nonetheless, the Committee’s
1988 report found a considerable body of indirect evidence implicating both subtherapeutic
and therapeutic use of antimicrobials as a potential human health hazard. The Committee
also strongly recommended further study of the issue.
1997 World Health Organization (WHO) Report, “The Medical Impact of Antimicrobial
Use in Food Animals”
In October 1997, the WHO convened a meeting of experts to examine the question of
whether the use of antimicrobials in livestock production, including through use in animal
feed, contributes to the escalation of antimicrobial resistance in humans. The findings of
the meeting, which were summarized in a report, included the conclusion that all uses of
antimicrobials lead to the selection of resistant forms of bacteria. Furthermore, the report
stated that “low-level, long-term exposure to antimicrobials may have greater selective
potential than short-term, full-dose therapeutic use” (Ref. 6, p. 5). The report found that the
selection of resistant bacteria has adverse consequences for preventing and treating disease
in humans, animals, and plants.
The WHO expert committee recommended that the use of antimicrobial drugs for
growth promotion in animals be terminated if these drugs are also prescribed for use as
anti-infective agents in human medicine or if they are known to induce cross-resistance to
antimicrobials used for human medical therapy. The Committee also recommended the
8
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
development of a systematic approach towards replacing growth-promoting antimicrobials
with safer non-antimicrobial alternatives. The expert committee called for enhanced
monitoring of resistance among isolates of enteric bacteria from food animals and food of
animal origin. In addition, the Committee recommended managing risk at the primary
production level through measures that promote the prudent use of antimicrobials,
including enforcement of relevant laws pertaining to antimicrobial use, education for
prescribers and producers, and requiring that use of antimicrobials for treatment of
infections in animals be prescribed by veterinarians.
1999 National Research Council (NRC) Report: “The Use of Drugs in Food Animals –
Benefits and Risks”
The Panel on Animal Health, Food Safety, and Public Health, jointly sponsored by
the NRC’s Board on Agriculture and IOM’s Food and Nutrition Board, initiated a project
to review the issues and relevant information regarding the use of drugs in food-producing
animals and to make recommendations about such use. The panel convened the Committee
on Drug Use in Food Animals to examine the benefits and risks associated with drug use in
food-producing animals and to prepare a report and make recommendations.
The Committee’s 1999 report included a review of the issues related to antibiotic use
in food-producing animals and provided a number of recommendations. The report
recommended establishing national databases to support scientific process and policy
development for the approval and use of antibiotics in food-producing animals. The report
also recommended that FDA use interdisciplinary panels of experts so that "further
development and use of antibiotics in both human and animal medicine have oversight by
an interdisciplinary panel of experts composed of representatives of the veterinary and
animal health industry, the human medicine community, consumer advocacy groups, the
animal production industry, and the regulatory agencies" (Ref. 7, p. 11).
1999 United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report – “Food Safety: The
Agricultural Use of Antibiotics and Its Implications for Human Health”
In response to a request from Congress, the GAO initiated a study in May 1998 to
examine: “1) how antibiotics are used in agriculture and the implications of that use for
human health; 2) federal roles and responsibilities for overseeing the use of antibiotics in
agriculture; and 3) issues surrounding the debate over whether to further regulate or restrict
the use of antibiotics in agriculture” (Ref. 8, p. 1).
In its study report, dated April 1999, GAO concluded that although research has
linked the use of antibiotics in agriculture to the emergence of resistant foodborne
pathogens, “there are no current comprehensive estimates of the extent to which antibioticresistance strains have resulted in illness and deaths” (Ref. 8, p. 1). GAO concluded that
the debate over whether antibiotic use should be restricted in agriculture centers on the risk
antibiotics pose to human health relative to their benefits to agriculture. The GAO report
recommended that “the departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services work
9
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
together to develop and implement a plan with specific goals, time frames and resources
needed for determining the safe use of antibiotics in agriculture.”
1999 European Commission Report, “Opinion of the Scientific Steering Committee on
Antimicrobial Resistance”
Due to the public and animal health concerns associated with the increasing rate of
antimicrobial resistance development, the European Commission, Directorate-General
XXIV, asked that organization’s Scientific Steering Committee to “scientifically evaluate
the current position regarding the prevalence and development of antimicrobial resistance,
examine its implications for human and animal health, particularly with regard to the
development and management of infections” (Ref. 9, p. 7).
The Committee’s report concluded that actions should be taken promptly to reduce
the overall use of antimicrobials. Four primary recommendations were forwarded: (1)
antimicrobial drugs should be used prudently; (2) infections should be prevented and
resistant organisms contained; (3) research for new modalities of prevention and treatment
of infections should be undertaken; and (4) the effects of such interventions should be
monitored and evaluated.
2000 World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Consultation: “WHO Global Principles
for the Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance in Animals Intended for Food”
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World
Organization for Animal Health (OIE) participated in the June 2000 WHO expert consultation,
the purpose of which was to develop global principles for minimizing the negative public
health impact associated with the use of antimicrobial agents in food-producing animals while
providing for their safe and effective use in veterinary medicine (Ref. 10).
The principles were part of a comprehensive WHO global strategy for the
containment of antimicrobial resistance and provided a framework of recommendations to
reduce the overuse and misuse of antimicrobials in food-producing animals for the
protection of human health. The principles strengthened and endorsed earlier WHO
recommendations such as the need to terminate the use of antimicrobial growth promoters
pending comprehensive human health safety evaluations, the need to ensure that all
antimicrobials for animal use are only supplied through authorized outlets (e.g., by
veterinary prescription), and the need to establish surveillance systems on antimicrobial
drug consumption.
2003 Report, “Joint FAO/OIE/WHO Expert Workshop on Non-Human Antimicrobial
Usage and Antimicrobial Resistance: Scientific assessment”
In December 2003, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), and the World Health
Organization (WHO) convened a workshop to “perform a scientific assessment of the
antimicrobial resistance risks arising from non-human usage of antimicrobials and to
10
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
formulate recommendations and options for future risk management actions to be
considered by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) and OIE” (Ref. 11, p. 1).
The expert panel’s findings from the workshop were documented in a report which
contained a number of conclusions, including: 1) “there is clear evidence of adverse human
health consequences due to resistant organisms resulting from non-human usage of
antimicrobials;” 2) “the amount and pattern of non-human usage of antimicrobials impact
the occurrence of resistant bacteria in animals and on food commodities and thereby human
exposure to these resistant bacteria;” 3) “the foodborne route is the major transmission
pathway for resistant bacteria and resistance genes from food animals to humans, but other
routes of transmission exist;” and 4) the “consequences of antimicrobial resistance are
particularly severe when pathogens are resistant to antimicrobials critically important in
humans” (Ref. 11, p. 1).
The expert panel recommended that WHO appoint a group of experts to define which
antimicrobials are considered critically important in humans. In addition, the panel
commented on the need to further develop risk assessment approaches that adequately
address the broad range of potential human health impacts and encouraged OIE to continue
its work on risk analysis in coordination with FAO and WHO. Finally, the panel
recommended that Codex collaborate with OIE to define a more efficient risk management
system for addressing the risks.
2003 Institute of Medicine (IOM) Report, “Microbial Threats to Health: Emergence,
Detection and Response”
The Committee on Emerging Microbial Threats to Health in the 21st Century was
charged by the IOM to “review the current state of knowledge on the emergence of
infectious diseases; assess the capacity of the United States to detect and respond to
microbial threats to public health; and identify potential challenges and opportunities for
public health actions, both global and domestic, to strengthen capabilities in prevention,
detection, and response” (Ref. 12, p. 3).
The Committee’s report discussed thirteen factors 4 that account for the emergence of
new or enhanced microbial threats. The report noted “the convergence of any number of
factors can create an environment where infectious diseases can emerge…” (Ref. 12, p. 4).
In addition, the Committee provided a number of recommended actions for responding to
the increasing infectious disease rates prompted by these emergence factors. One of the
recommendations was to “more finely target the use of antimicrobials” including
expanding efforts to decrease the inappropriate use of antimicrobials in human medicine
(Ref. 12, p. 6). In addition, the committee recommended that “FDA ban the use of
4
The thirteen factors included 1) microbial adaptation and change, 2) human vulnerability, 3) climate and
weather, 4) changing ecosystems, 5) economic development and land use, 6) human demographics and
behavior, 7) technology and industry, 8) international travel and commerce, 9) breakdown of public health
measures, 10) poverty and social inequality, 11) war and famine, 12) lack of political will, and 13) intent to
harm.
11
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
antimicrobials for growth promotion in animals if those classes of antimicrobials are also
used in humans” (Ref. 12, p. 15).
2004 Report, “Second Joint FAO/OIE/WHO Expert Workshop on Non-Human
Antimicrobial Usage and Antimicrobial Resistance: Management Options”
As summarized above, a preliminary scientific assessment of the antimicrobial
resistance risks arising from non-human usage of antimicrobials was conducted by the first
Joint Expert Workshop on Non-Human Antimicrobial Usage in December 2003 in Geneva
(Ref. 13). The outcome of the first workshop, plus other relevant information, formed the
basis for consideration by this second workshop. The report of this second workshop
included suggestions to Codex, FAO, WHO, and OIE for moving forward on the issue.
Some of the key conclusions and recommendations in the report included: 1) the risks
associated with non-human antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance should be part of
human safety assessments for regulatory decisions relating to veterinary antimicrobials, 2)
the concept of “critically-important” classes of antimicrobials for humans should be
developed by WHO, 3) good agricultural practices can reduce the necessity for
antimicrobials, 4) there is a need for capacity building and networking to help implement
antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems in various countries, and 5) a Codex/OIE
Task Force should be established to develop risk management options for antimicrobial
resistance related to non-human use of antimicrobials.
2004 United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report – “Antibiotic
Resistance: Federal Agencies Need to Better Focus Efforts to Address Risks to Humans
from Antibiotic Use in Animals”
In response to a request from Congress, GAO initiated a study in May 2003 to
“examine 1) scientific evidence on the transference of antibiotic resistance from animals to
humans and extent of potential harm to human health, 2) agencies’ efforts to assess and
address these risks, 3) the types of data needed to support research on these risks and extent
to which the agencies collect these data, 4) use of antibiotics in animals in the United States
compared with its key agricultural trading partners and competitors, and 5) information on
how use has affected trade” (Ref. 14, p. 3).
In its study report, dated April 2004, GAO concluded that antibiotic-resistant bacteria
have been transferred from animals to humans. GAO also stated that many of the studies
reviewed as part of GAO’s research found that this transference from animals to humans
poses significant risks for human health. According to GAO’s findings, studies have shown
two types of evidence related to the transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria from animals to
humans. First, some studies have provided evidence of associations between changes in
antibiotic use in animals and resistance to antibiotics in human bacteria. For example,
researchers have found that antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli (E. coli) and
Campylobacter increased in humans as use of the antibiotics increased in animals.
Second, GAO concluded that studies that have examined the genetic makeup of the
bacteria have provided stronger scientific evidence that antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter
12
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
and Salmonella bacteria are transferred from animals to humans. In those studies, strains of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria infecting humans were indistinguishable from those found in
animals, leading researchers to conclude that the animals were the source of human
infection.
The GAO report noted that researchers disagree about the extent of the human health
risk caused by this transference. According to the report, “many researchers contend that
antibiotic use in animals poses significant risk for human health.” The GAO report also
noted that “a small number of studies contend that the health risks of the transference are
minimal” (Ref. 14, p. 23).
GAO recommended that “the Commissioner of FDA expedite FDA’s risk
assessments of the antibiotics used in animals that the agency has identified as critically
important to human health to determine if action is necessary to restrict or prohibit animal
uses in order to safeguard human health” (Ref. 14, p. 48). GAO also recommended that the
Secretaries of Agriculture and of Health and Human Services “jointly develop and
implement a plan for collecting data on antibiotic use in animals...” (Ref. 14, p. 48).
The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) reviewed and subsequently
responded to the 2004 GAO Report on Antibiotic Resistance. In its response, HHS cited 11
additional supporting studies not included in the GAO report (See End Note) i, and provided
the following comments:
“The draft report presents or refers to significant and growing evidence demonstrating
the human health consequences of drug resistant infections related to antibiotic use in
agriculture.” “These [11 additional] studies, along with those cited in the GAO report, all
demonstrate a relationship between the use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals,
antibiotic resistance in humans, and adverse human health consequences as a result. We
believe that there is a preponderance of evidence that the use of antimicrobials in foodproducing animals has adverse human consequences.” “There is little evidence to the
contrary.”
2005 Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex), “Code of Practice to Minimize and
Contain Antimicrobial Resistance” (Code of Practice)
The Code of Practice provides guidance for the responsible and prudent use of
antimicrobials in food-producing animals (Ref. 15). Its objectives are to minimize adverse
impacts on public health associated with the use of antimicrobial drugs in food-producing
animals.
The Code of Practice makes a number of recommendations regarding the responsible
use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals. For example, the document recommends
that responsible use 1) should be controlled by the veterinary profession or other parties
with the requisite expertise, and 2) does not include the use for growth promotion of
veterinary antimicrobial drugs that belong to or are able to cause cross-resistance to classes
13
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
of antimicrobial agents used in humans (or submitted for approval for use in humans) in the
absence of an appropriate risk analysis.
2006 Antimicrobial Resistance: Implications for the Food System, Comprehensive
Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
This report was conducted under the auspices of the Institute of Food Technologists
and the IFT foundation (Ref. 16). The panelists found the extent to which antibiotic use in
food animals produces clinically important antibiotic resistant infections in humans is
unknown. However, they do state in their recommendations that “In veterinary medicine
and production agriculture implementation of various management strategies (such as
responsible use guidelines, quality assurance programs, and antibiotic alternatives),
coupled with government regulations, should decrease opportunities for the selection of
antibiotic resistant microorganisms.” Specifically, they stated “Always practice prudent use
of antimicrobials to limit resistance selection and to maintain maximal benefit of
antimicrobials in the future.”
2009 American Academy of Microbiology. Antibiotic Resistance: An Ecological
Perspective on an Old Problem
This report emphasizes the ecological fact that antibiotic resistance is a natural
phenomenon that cannot be eliminated (Ref. 17). The practical approach is to find effective
ways to cope with antibiotic resistant bacteria harmful to humans and animals and to
control the development of new types of resistance. Controlling antibiotic-resistant
bacteria and subsequent infections requires vigilance on many fronts. The prudent and
responsible use of antibiotics and the elimination of unnecessary use (e.g., viral infections;
unnecessary, prolonged treatment) are noted as mandatory steps to an appropriate public
health strategy to limit infections by resistant organisms.
2011 WHO Report: Tackling antibiotic resistance from a food safety perspective in
Europe
This report follows a long series of WHO reports addressing antibiotic resistance in
the food chain (Ref. 18). The WHO continues to highlight the urgent need for action in
remediating antibiotic resistance through a holistic, intersectoral, and multifaceted
approach that includes all efforts to reduce unnecessary use of antibiotics, including those
uses in food production. Specific regulatory strategies include: 1) eliminating the use of
antibiotics as growth promoters in food animals; 2) requiring that antibiotics be
administered to animals only when prescribed by a veterinarian; and 3) requiring the
antibiotics identified as critically important in human medicine - especially
fluoroquinolones and third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins - only be used in food
animals when their use is justified.
14
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
Brief Summary of Recent Peer-Reviewed Scientific Literature
2008. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Longitudinal study of antimicrobial
resistance among Escherichia coli isolates from integrated multisite cohorts of humans and
swine. Alali et al.
This study longitudinally examined the relationship between antimicrobial resistant E. coli
from human wastewater and swine fecal samples and several risk factors including host
species, production type, vocation (e.g., slaughter plant workers), and season. Authors
reported that the higher levels of E. coli resistance in swine isolates as compared with
human isolates was likely associated with either the past or current use of injectable
antimicrobial agents (e.g., ceftiofur sodium) or the use of antimicrobial agents in feed (e.g.,
chlortetracycline) or water. Furthermore, slaughter plant workers were shown to be at
higher risk of carrying multidrug-resistant E. coli than non-swine workers.
2008. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Diversity and distribution of commensal
fecal Escherichia coli bacteria in beef cattle administered selected subtherapeutic
antimicrobials in a feedlot setting. Sharma et al.
This study investigated the influence of administration of chlortetracycline alone or in
combination with sulfamethazine on the development of resistance, dissemination of
defined strain types, and prevalence of resistance determinants in feedlot cattle (Ref. 20).
Shedding of tetracycline-resistant E. coli was higher in animals receiving both treatments.
While tetracycline resistance was detected in cattle with no prior antimicrobial exposure,
shedding of tetracycline-resistant E. coli was higher in animals subjected to either of the
two treatments.
2008. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Effect of subtherapeutic administration of
antibiotics on the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli bacteria in feedlot
cattle. Alexander et al.
This study involved the collection of 3,300 fecal samples over a 314-day period from 300
feedlot steers receiving subtherapeutic levels of antibiotics (Ref. 21). Study findings
indicated that administration of tetracycline in combination with sulfamethazine clearly
increased the prevalence of tetracycline- and ampicillin-resistant E. coli in cattle and the
numbers of resistant E. coli organisms shed.
2009. American Journal of Veterinary Research. A metagenomic approach for determining
prevalence of tetracycline resistance genes in the fecal flora of conventionally raised
feedlot steers and feedlot steers raised without antimicrobials. Harvey et al.
This study compared the prevalence of tetracycline-resistance genes in the fecal flora of
conventionally raised feedlot steers and feedlot steers raised without antimicrobials (Ref.
22). Authors observed that the percentage of fecal samples with 11 tetracycline resistance
genes was significantly higher for fecal samples from conventionally raised cattle (35/61
[57%]) than for fecal samples from antimicrobial-free cattle (16/61 [26%]).
15
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
2009. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease. Association between tetracycline consumption
and tetracycline resistance in Escherichia coli from healthy Danish slaughter pigs. Vieira et
al.
The objective of this Danish study was to investigate the association between tetracyclineresistant Escherichia coli isolates from the intestinal tract of healthy pigs and patterns of
tetracycline consumption in the herds of origin, together with other risk factors (Ref. 23).
The study showed that the larger the time since the last administration of tetracycline, the
lower the likelihood of isolating a resistant E. coli .
2009. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. Associations between reported on-farm
antimicrobial use practices and observed antimicrobial resistance in generic fecal
Escherichia coli isolated from Alberta finishing swine farms. Varga et al.
This study used statistical models to evaluate the associations between various
antimicrobial use practices and resistance to antimicrobials among generic fecal
Escherichia coli isolated from Alberta finishing swine (Ref. 24). In-feed antimicrobial use
was significantly associated with an increased risk of resistance to ampicillin,
chloramphenicol, streptomycin, and sulfisoxazole in E. coli isolates. Chlortetracycline use
in grower rations was associated with ampicillin and tetracycline resistance.
2010. International Journal of Food Microbiology. Farm-to-fork characterization of
Escherichia coli associated with feedlot cattle with a known history of antimicrobial use.
Alexander et al.
This study investigated antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli isolated from cattle fed
diets containing chlortetracycline plus sulfamethazine (AS700) (Ref. 25). Compared to the
control, in which no feed antibiotics were administered, the prevalence of ampicillinresistant and tetracycline-resistant E. coli was three- and four-fold greater in feces from
treated animals respectively, but was similar between treatments for animal hide samples.
2011. Environmental Health Perspectives. Lower prevalence of antibiotic-resistant
Enterococci on U.S. conventional poultry farms that transitioned to organic practices.
Sapkota et al.
This study compared antimicrobial resistance in enterococci recovered from conventional
poultry farms using antibiotics with farms that transitioned to antibiotic-free production
practices and had just received organic certification (Ref. 26). Over 40% of Enterococcus
faecalis isolates from conventional poultry houses were multidrug resistant, compared with
10% of isolates from newly organic poultry houses. In addition, 84% of Enterococcus
faecium isolates from conventional poultry houses were multidrug resistant, compared with
17% of isolates from newly organic poultry houses.
2011. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease. Association between antimicrobial resistance in
Escherichia coli isolates from food animals and blood stream isolates from humans in
Europe: an ecological study. Vieira et al.
16
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
The authors analyzed the correlation between the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in
E. coli isolates from blood stream infections in humans and in E. coli isolates from poultry,
pigs, and cattle in 11 countries between 2005 and 2008 (Ref. 27). Resistance against
multiple drugs in E. coli isolates from food animals (especially poultry and pigs) was
highly correlated with resistance in isolates from humans.
2011. BMC Microbiology. Distribution and characterization of ampicillin- and
tetracycline-resistant Escherichia coli from feedlot cattle fed subtherapeutic antimicrobials.
Mirzaagha et al.
Authors characterized E. coli isolates recovered from cattle that either received no dietary
antimicrobials or were intermittently administered subtherapeutic levels of
chlortetracycline, chlortetracycline and sulfamethazine (SMX), or virginiamycin over a 9month feeding period (Ref. 28). This study showed that strains exhibited multidrug
resistance to SMX and chloramphenicol (a drug not in the antibiotic regimen) more
frequently when obtained from steers fed chlortetracycline plus sulfamethazine than from
cattle treated with either chlortetracycline alone or with virginiamycin. Results further
suggested that the administration of chlortetracycline, even in the absence of SMX, can
lead to the emergence of resistance to SMX, as well as other antibiotics, including
ampicillin and chloramphenicol.
2012. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. In-feed antibiotic effects on the
swine intestinal microbiome. Looft et al.
This study involved pigs raised in a highly controlled environment, with one group of
littermates receiving a diet containing a growth-enhancing antibiotic combination product
[chlortetracycline, sulfamethazine, and penicillin (known as ASP250)] and the other
receiving the same diet without the antibiotics (Ref. 29). Even a low, short-term (14-day)
dose of in-feed antibiotics increased the prevalence and diversity of antibiotic resistance
genes, including resistance to antibiotics not administered in the study, and increased the
prevalence of E. coli.
IV. Strategies for Controlling Antimicrobial Resistance Are Needed
As summarized above in Section III, the public health concerns associated with the
use of medically important antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animals have been the
subject of scientific interest for the past 40 years. FDA has considered all available
information and believes that the weight of scientific evidence supports the
recommendations outlined in this guidance document.
To effectively respond to the public health concerns associated with antimicrobial
resistance, FDA believes it is important to broadly consider how antimicrobial drugs are
being used. The scientific community generally agrees that antimicrobial drug use is a key
driver for the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. It is imperative that strategies
17
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
for controlling antimicrobial resistance include a consideration of how antimicrobial drugs
are being used and measures to address those uses that are injudicious in nature.
V. Current Regulatory Framework
FDA considers the issue of antimicrobial resistance as part of its human food safety
review related to new animal drugs used in food-producing animals. FDA considers an
antimicrobial new animal drug to be “safe” if the agency concludes that there is
“reasonable certainty of no harm to human health” from the proposed use of the drug in
food-producing animals. This standard applies to safety evaluations completed prior to
new animal drug approvals, as well as to those completed for drugs after approval. If this
safety standard is not met before approval, the drug cannot be approved. If safety issues
arise after approval, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (the Act) provides grounds
for withdrawal of approval of new animal drug applications for safety reasons. For
example, section 512(e)(1)(B) of the Act provides for withdrawal of new animal drug
application approvals when new evidence, along with evidence contained in the
application, shows that the drug is not shown to be safe under the approved conditions of
use. Under this provision, if FDA initiates a withdrawal action, it must produce evidence
to show that there is a reasonable basis from which serious questions may be inferred about
the ultimate safety of the drug and any substance that may be formed in or on food as a
result of use of such drug under approved conditions. Once the agency meets this initial
burden, the burden then shifts to the sponsor to demonstrate the safety of the drug (Docket
no. 00N-1571, at p. 5, Mar. 16, 2004).
In 2003, FDA implemented new policies for evaluating antimicrobial resistance
associated with use of antimicrobial new animal drugs in food-producing animals through the
issuance of Guidance for Industry (GFI) #152, “Evaluating the Safety of Antimicrobial New
Animal Drugs with Regard to their Microbiological Effects on Bacteria of Human Health
Concern”
(http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/GuidanceComplianceEnforcement/GuidanceforIndu
stry/UCM052519.pdf). This guidance document describes a risk-based assessment process for
evaluating antimicrobial resistance associated with the use of antimicrobial new animal drugs
in food-producing animals. The guidance also recommends measures for mitigating such risk.
In general, FDA’s GFI #152 is premised on the concept that increasing the exposure of
bacterial populations to antimicrobial drugs increases the risk of generating resistance to those
antimicrobial drugs. Pursuant to this principle, the administration of medically important
antimicrobial drugs to entire herds or flocks of food-producing animals (e.g., for production
purposes) would represent a use that poses a qualitatively higher risk to public health than the
administration of such drugs to individual animals or targeted groups of animals (e.g., to
prevent, control, or treat specific diseases). In addition to factors that impact the potential
extent of use of the drug, the guidance also considers such factors as the properties of the drug
in question including mechanism of action and mechanism of resistance, the prevalence of
zoonotic foodborne bacteria in the food-producing animal species for which the drug is
intended, and the importance of the drug in question as a therapy in humans. Risk mitigating
18
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
factors that are considered include such limitations as restricting use of the drug to use by or on
the order of a veterinarian.
Although FDA developed GFI #152 primarily to assess antimicrobial resistance risks as
part of the new animal drug approval process, the underlying concept described above is also
applicable to safety evaluations conducted for previously-approved antimicrobial new animal
drugs. Therefore, FDA considers this same concept when it conducts safety evaluations for
currently approved antimicrobial drugs, including those approved for use in animal feed.
From a practical standpoint, however, some significant differences exist between
applying the GFI #152 risk assessment approach to the pre-approval process and applying it to
safety reviews of currently-approved products. On the pre-approval side, the GFI #152
assessment process, including the various risk mitigation measures described, is taken into
consideration by drug sponsors upstream in the drug development process and, in effect, steers
product development in a direction that is most consistent with the guidance. On the postapproval side, FDA may examine certain currently-approved products to determine whether
such products appear consistent with GFI #152. However, initiating action to withdraw an
approved new animal drug application (NADA), in whole or in part, based on the results of a
post-approval safety review would require the agency to make the showing required under
section 512(e)(1) of the Act.
Alternatively, concerns associated with approved NADAs can sometimes be addressed
through more informal processes. For example, in certain cases FDA has worked
collaboratively with the sponsor of an NADA to address concerns raised regarding their
product and has initiated steps to permit the sponsor to voluntarily withdraw part or all of the
NADA or to revise the product labeling to address the concern. This alternative pathway can
in some cases be an effective and expedient mechanism for resolving issues associated with an
NADA.
VI. Status of FDA’s Current Activities
In general, the antimicrobial new animal drug applications that FDA is addressing as
part of its efforts to evaluate the public health concerns associated with the use of
medically important antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animals can be divided into two
broad categories: 1) those NADAs submitted after the issuance of GFI #152 in 2003 and
for which FDA is assessing the microbiological safety of the new animal drug on a preapproval basis using the principles outlined in GFI #152; and 2) those NADAs approved
before the final version of GFI#152 was issued in 2003. In regard to the first category,
FDA believes the approach outlined in GFI #152 for evaluating microbiological safety as
part of the drug approval process has been very effective. As noted above, that assessment
process and the associated risk mitigation measures are usually taken into consideration by
industry during the drug development process. Thus, products that ultimately move
forward toward approval are those products that include use conditions that are consistent
with the guidance and are intended to minimize the extent to which product use would
contribute to resistance development.
19
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
FDA believes the approach outlined in GFI #152 is scientifically sound and is
protective of the public health. FDA recognizes that the list of drugs in Appendix A is not
static and should be periodically reassessed and updated as necessary. Such reassessment
is necessary to take into consideration such factors as the development of new
antimicrobials for human therapy, the emergence of diseases in humans, or changes in
prescribing practices in the United States. FDA will update Appendix A, as necessary,
through a separate process that will also be subject to public comment.
The second category of products are those antimicrobial NADAs that were approved
prior to the implementation of GFI #152. Some of the products in this category include
products that were approved for use in food-producing animals more than 30 years ago. Of
particular concern, as discussed in section IV, are those products that are approved for use
in animal feed for production or growth-enhancing purposes. Although these products are
FDA-approved, their approval occurred prior to implementation of current processes for
assessing safety with respect to antimicrobial resistance. Furthermore, the scientific
understanding regarding antimicrobial resistance has advanced significantly over this time
frame and, as discussed earlier in this document, a number of scientific reports have raised
public health concerns regarding the use of medically important antimicrobials in foodproducing animals.
As a result, FDA is examining available information regarding medically important
antimicrobial drugs currently approved for use in food-producing animals and considering
potential steps for agency action.
VII. Recommended Principles Regarding Judicious Use in Animals
The continued availability of effective antimicrobial drugs is critically important for
combating infectious disease in both humans and animals. This includes the continued
availability of feed and water uses of such drugs for managing disease in animal
agriculture. Therefore, it is in the interest of both human and animal health that we take a
more proactive approach to considering how antimicrobial drugs are being used, and take
steps to assure that such uses are appropriate and necessary for maintaining the health of
humans and animals. Using medically important antimicrobial drugs as judiciously as
possible is key to minimizing resistance development and preserving the effectiveness of
these drugs as therapies for humans and animals. Although FDA applauds the efforts to
date by various veterinary and animal producer organizations to institute guidelines for the
judicious use of antimicrobial drugs, the agency believes additional, voluntary steps are
needed.
To further address this public and animal health concern, FDA is recommending two
additional principles about the appropriate or judicious use of medically important
antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animals. These principles are consistent with the
recommendations of a number of recent scientific panels or committees referenced earlier
in this document including the 1997, 2000, and 2011 reports of the WHO, the 2003 IOM
Report, and the 2005 Codex Code of Practice.
20
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
FDA recognizes the need to collaborate with the animal health and animal producer
communities on strategies for minimizing animal health impacts or industry disruption that
may be associated with the implementation of changes by animal drug sponsors to
voluntarily align the use conditions of affected drug products with the principles outlined
below. Furthermore, FDA intends to consult with the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) on implementation strategies, including the development of a
framework for veterinary oversight and consultation requirements. FDA is committed to
assuring that the public health is protected while also assuring that the health needs of
animals are addressed.
Principle 1: The use of medically important antimicrobial drugs in food-producing
animals should be limited to those uses that are considered necessary for assuring animal
health.
In light of the risk that antimicrobial resistance poses to public health, FDA believes the
use of medically important antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animals for production
purposes (e.g., to promote growth or improve feed efficiency) represents an injudicious use
of these important drugs. Production uses are not directed at any specifically identified
disease, but rather are expressly indicated and used for the purpose of enhancing the
production of animal-derived products. In contrast, FDA considers uses that are associated
with the treatment, control, or prevention 5 of specific diseases, including administration
through feed or water, to be uses that are necessary for assuring the health of food-producing
animals.
Some may have concerns that the use of medically important antimicrobial drugs in
food-producing animals for disease prevention purposes is not an appropriate or judicious
use. However, FDA believes that some indications for prevention use are necessary and
judicious as long as such use includes professional veterinary involvement. Veterinary
involvement in the decision-making process associated with the use of medically important
antimicrobial drugs is an important aspect of assuring appropriate use, including judicious
prevention use. When determining the appropriateness of a prevention use, veterinarians
consider several important factors such as determining the medical rationale for such use,
and that such use is appropriately targeted at a specific etiologic agent and appropriately
timed relative to the disease. For example, if a veterinarian determines, based on the
client’s production practices and herd health history, that cattle being transported or
otherwise stressed are more likely to develop a certain bacterial infection, preventively
treating these cattle with an antimicrobial approved for prevention of that bacterial
infection would be considered a judicious use. Another example would be the prevention
of necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens. In this case, the prevention use of an antimicrobial
is important to manage this disease in certain flocks in the face of concurrent coccidiosis, a
significant parasitic disease in chickens. On the other hand, FDA would not consider the
administration of a drug to apparently healthy animals in the absence of any information
5
Disease prevention involves the administration of an antimicrobial drug to animals, none of which are
exhibiting clinical signs of disease, in a situation where disease is likely to occur if the drug is not
administered.
21
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
that such animals were at risk of a specific disease to be a judicious use. The decision to
use a specific drug or combination drug is generally based on factors that veterinarians are
uniquely qualified to consider, including the mode of antibacterial action, drug distribution
in specific tissues, and the duration of effective drug levels at the site of infection.
Principle 2: The use of medically important antimicrobial drugs in food-producing
animals should be limited to those uses that include veterinary oversight or consultation.
Most of the feed-use antimicrobial drugs are currently approved for over-the-counter
use in food-producing animals for purposes that include the treatment, control, and
prevention of disease as well as for production purposes (i.e., for growth promotion uses such
as increased rate of weight gain). In addition to instituting voluntary measures that would
limit use of medically important antimicrobial drugs in food-producing animals to uses that
are considered necessary to assure the animals’ health, FDA also believes it is important to
phase-in the voluntary practice of including veterinary oversight or consultation in the use of
these drugs. As noted above, FDA believes that this practice is an important mechanism for
helping to assure appropriate use. Veterinarians can play a critical role in the diagnosis of
disease and in the decision-making process related to instituting measures to treat, control, or
prevent disease. FDA recognizes that the nature of veterinary involvement can vary due to
numerous factors such as geographic location and animal production setting. In fact, there
are limited numbers of large animal veterinarians, which can make consultation or oversight
challenging in certain situations. For example, some animal disease events require
immediate attention. In some cases, veterinarians may be directly diagnosing and
administering therapies, while in other cases they are visiting and consulting with producers
periodically to establish customized disease management protocols for that producer’s herd
or flock. Of key importance to FDA is the fact that, in both of these cases, the veterinarian is
involved in the decision-making process regarding antimicrobial drug use. FDA recognizes
that increasing veterinary involvement in the use of antimicrobial drugs has significant
practical implications for animal producers, veterinary practitioners, and the veterinary
profession as whole. Therefore, FDA is particularly interested in receiving comments on
strategies for effectively promoting the voluntary adoption of such a change.
VIII. Conclusion
In order to minimize the development of antimicrobial resistance, FDA believes
that it is important to ensure the judicious use of medically important antimicrobial drugs in
animal agriculture. We recommend several steps to accomplish this including voluntary
measures that would limit medically important antimicrobial drugs to uses in foodproducing animals that are considered necessary for assuring animal health and that include
veterinary oversight or consultation. Such limitations would reduce overall medically
important antimicrobial drug use levels, thereby reducing antimicrobial resistance selection
pressure, while still maintaining the availability of these drugs for appropriate use.
22
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
IX. References
1. 1969 Report of the Joint Committee on the Use of Antibiotics in Animal Husbandry and
Veterinary Medicine.
2. 1970 FDA Task Force Report, “The Use of Antibiotics in Animal Feed.”
3. 1980 National Academy of Sciences Report, “The Effects on Human Health of
Subtherapeutic Use of Antimicrobial Drugs in Animal Feeds.”
4. 1984 Seattle-King County Study: “Surveillance of the Flow of Salmonella and
Campylobacter in a Community.”
5. 1988 Institute of Medicine (IOM) Report: “Human Health Risks with the
Subtherapeutic Use of Penicillin or Tetracyclines in Animal Feed.”
6. 1997 World Health Organization (WHO) Report, “The Medical Impact of Antimicrobial
Use in Food Animals.” http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1997/WHO_EMC_ZOO_97.4.pdf
7. 1999 National Research Council (NRC) Report: “The Use of Drugs in Food Animals –
Benefits and Risks.”
8. 1999 United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report – “Food Safety:
The Agricultural Use of Antibiotics and Its Implications for Human Health.”
http://www.gao.gov/archive/1999/rc99074.pdf
9. 1999 European Commission Report, “Opinion of the Scientific Steering Committee on
Antimicrobial Resistance.” http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/ssc/out50_en.pdf
10. 2000 World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Consultation: “WHO Global
Principles for the Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance in Animals Intended for
Food.” http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_CDS_CSR_APH_2000.4.pdf
11. 2003 Report, “Joint FAO/OIE/WHO Expert Workshop on Non-Human Antimicrobial
Usage and Antimicrobial Resistance: Scientific assessment.”
http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/micro/en/amr.pdf
12. 2003 Institute of Medicine (IOM) Report, “Microbial Threats to Health: Emergence,
Detection and Response.”
13. 2004 Report, “Second Joint FAO/OIE/WHO Expert Workshop on Non-Human
Antimicrobial Usage and Antimicrobial Resistance: Management options.”
http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Conferences_Events/docs/pdf/WHO-CDSCPE-ZFK-2004.8.pdf
23
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
14. 2004 United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report – “Antibiotic
Resistance: Federal Agencies Need to Better Focus Efforts to Address Risks to
Humans from Antibiotic Use in Animals.” http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04490.pdf
15. 2005 Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex), “Code of Practice to Minimize and
Contain Antimicrobial Resistance.”
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/10213/CXP_061e.pdf
16. 2006 Antimicrobial Resistance: Implications for the Food System, Comprehensive
Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, Vol. 5, 2006.
17. 2009. American Academy of Microbiology. Antibiotic Resistance: An Ecological
Perspective on an Old Problem. 1752 N Street, NW Washington, DC 20036
http://www.asm.org
18. 2011. Tackling antibiotic resistance from a food safety perspective in Europe. World
Health Organization (WHO), Regional Office for Europe Scherfigsvej 8, DK-2100
Copenhagen Ø, Denmark.
http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/136454/e94889.pdf
19. 2008. Longitudinal study of antimicrobial resistance among Escherichia coli isolates
from integrated multisite cohorts of humans and swine. Alali WQ, Scott HM, Harvey
RB, Norby B, Lawhorn DB, Pillai SD. Appl Environ Microbiol. 74(12):3672-81.
20. 2008. Diversity and distribution of commensal fecal Escherichia coli bacteria in beef
cattle administered selected subtherapeutic antimicrobials in a feedlot setting. Sharma
R, Munns K, Alexander T, Entz T, Mirzaagha P, Yanke LJ, Mulvey M, Topp E,
McAllister T. Appl Environ Microbiol.;74(20):6178-86.
21. 2008. Effect of subtherapeutic administration of antibiotics on the prevalence of
antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli bacteria in feedlot cattle. Alexander, T.W., L.J.
Yanke, E. Topp, M.E. Olson, R.R. Read, D.W. Morck, and T.A. McAllister. Applied
and Environmental Microbiology. 74:4405-4416.
22. 2009. A metagenomic approach for determining prevalence of tetracycline resistance
genes in the fecal flora of conventionally raised feedlot steers and feedlot steers raised
without antimicrobials. Harvey, R., J. Funk, T.E. Wittum, and A.E. Hoet. American
Journal of Veterinary Research. 70:198-202.
23. 2009. Association between tetracycline consumption and tetracycline resistance in
Escherichia coli from healthy Danish slaughter pigs. Vieira, A.R., H. Houe, H.C.
Wegener, D.M. Lo Fo Wong, and H.D. Emborg. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease.
6:99-109.
24. 2009. Associations between reported on-farm antimicrobial use practices and observed
antimicrobial resistance in generic fecal Escherichia coli isolated from Alberta
24
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
finishing swine farms. Varga C., A. Rajic, M.E. McFall, R.J. Reid-Smith, A.E. Deckert,
S.L. Checkley, and S.A. McEwen. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 88:185-192.
25. 2010. Farm-to-fork characterization of Escherichia coli associated with feedlot cattle
with a known history of antimicrobial use. Alexander, T.W., G.D. Inglis, L.J. Yanke, E.
Topp, R.R. Read, T. Reuter, and T.A. McAllister. International Journal of Food
Microbiology. 137:40-48.
26. 2011. Lower prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Enterococci on U.S. conventional
poultry farms that transitioned to organic practices. Sapkota AR, Hulet RM, Zhang G,
McDermott P, Kinney EL, Schwab KJ, Joseph SW. Environ Health Perspect.
119(11):1622-8.
27. 2011. Association between antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli isolates from
food animals and blood stream isolates from humans in Europe: an ecological study.
Foodborne Pathogens and Disease. Vieira, A.R., P. Collignon, F.M. Aarestrup, S.A.
McEwen, R.S. Hendriksen, T. Hald, and H.C. Wegener. 8:1295-1301.
28. 2011. Distribution and characterization of ampicillin- and tetracycline-resistant
Escherichia coli from feedlot cattle fed subtherapeutic antimicrobials. Mirzaagha P,
Louie M, Sharma R, Yanke LJ, Topp E, McAllister TA. BMC Microbiol. 19;11:78.
29. 2012. In-feed antibiotic effects on the swine intestinal microbiome. Looft, T., T.A.
Johnson, H.K. Allen, D.O. Bayles, D.P. Alt, R.D. Stedtfeld, W.J. Sul, T.M. Stedtfeld,
B. Chai, J.R. Cole, S.A. Hashsham, J.M. Tiedje, and T.B. Stanton. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences USA. 109:1691-1696.
End Note
Other studies referenced by the Department of Health and Human Services in response to
2004 United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) Report – “Antibiotic
Resistance: Federal Agencies Need to Better Focus Efforts to Address Risks to Humans
from Antibiotic Use in Animals”:
1. Phillips I, Casewell M, Cox T, et al. Does the use of antibiotics in food animals pose a
risk to human health? A critical review of published data. J Antimicrob Chemother
2004;53:28-52.
2. Holmberg SD, Wells JG, Cohen ML. Animal-to-man transmission of antimicrobialresistant Salmonella: investigations of U.S. outbreaks, 1971-1983. Science
1984;225:833-5.
25
Contains Nonbinding Recommendations
3. Holmberg SD, Solomon SL, Blake PA. Health and economic impacts of
antimicrobial resistance. Rev Infect Dis 1987; 9:1065-78.
4. Lee LA, Puhr ND, Maloney K, et al. Increase in antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella
infections in the United States, 1989-1990. J Infect Dis 1994;170:128-34.
5. Varma J, Mølbak K, Rossiter S, et al. Antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella is
associated with increased hospitalization; NARMS 1996-2000. International Conference
on Emerging Infectious Diseases. March 2002. Atlanta, GA.
6. Varma J, Mølbak K, Rossiter S, et al. Antimicrobial resistance in non-typhoidal
Salmonella is associated with increased hospitalization and bloodstream infection-United States, 1996-2000. 51st Annual EIS Conference. April 22-26, 2002. Atlanta, GA.
7. Helms M, Vastrup P, Gerner-Smidt P, Mølbak K. Excess mortality associated with
antimicrobial drug-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:490-5.
8. Martin L, Fyfe M, Doré K, et al. Increased burden of illness associated with
antimicrobialresistant Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium infections. J Infect Dis
2004;189:377-84.
9 Smith KE, Besser JM, Hedberg CW, et al. Quinolone-resistant Campylobacter jejuni
infections in Minnesota, 1992-1998. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1525-32.
10. Neimann J, Mølbak K, Engberg J, et al. Longer duration of illness among
Campylobacter patients treated with fluoroquinolones. 11th International Workshop on
Campylobacter, Helicobacter, and Related Organisms, 1-5 September, 2001. Freiburg,
Germany.
11. Nelson JM, Smith KE, Vugia DJ, et al. Prolonged diarrhea due to ciprofloxacinresistant Campylobacter infections. J Infect Dis 2004; 190:1150-7.
26
Disclaimer: Justia Dockets & Filings provides public litigation records from the federal appellate and district courts. These filings and docket sheets should not be considered findings of fact or liability, nor do they necessarily reflect the view of Justia.
Why Is My Information Online?