State of Texas et al v. United States of America et al

Filing 1

COMPLAINT against All Defendants (Filing fee $ 400 receipt number 0541-19989656) filed by State of Nebraska, State Of Texas, State of Arkansas, State of South Carolina, State or Alabama, State of Louisiana, State of West Virginia. (Attachments: # 1 Civil Cover Sheet)(Disher, Todd)

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 1 of 137

IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF TEXAS
BROWNSVILLE DIVISION
)
STATE OF TEXAS;
)
)
STATE OF ALABAMA;
)
)
STATE OF ARKANSAS;
)
)
)
STATE OF LOUISIANA;
)
STATE OF NEBRASKA;
)
)
STATE OF SOUTH CAROLINA; and
)
)
STATE OF WEST VIRGINIA;
)
Plaintiffs, )
)
v.
)
)
)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA;
)
KIRSTJEN M. NIELSEN, Secretary of the U.S.
)
Department of Homeland Security;
)
)
KEVIN K. MCALEENAN, Commissioner of U.S.
)
Customs and Border Protection;
)
)
THOMAS D. HOMAN, Deputy Director and Acting
)
Director of U.S. Immigration and Customs
)
Enforcement;
)
)
L. FRANCIS CISSNA, Director of U.S. Citizenship and )
Immigration Services; and
)
)
CARLA L. PROVOST, Acting Chief of U.S. Border
)
Patrol;
)
Defendants. )
)

Case No.

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COMPLAINT FOR DECLARATORY AND INJUNCTIVE RELIEF
1.

In 2012 and again in 2014, unilateral executive action by the Obama

Administration created far-reaching, class-based “deferred action” programs to grant
to millions of unlawfully present aliens the legal classification of “lawful presence” in
this country and numerous attendant benefits—without congressional authorization.
2.

In a decision affirmed by the divided Supreme Court, the Fifth Circuit

upheld this Court’s preliminary injunction of the 2014 executive action that created
“DAPA” and “Expanded DACA.” The Fifth Circuit held this executive action invalid
as lacking notice-and-comment procedure and, in any event, contrary to federal law.
As the Fifth Circuit noted, the Executive’s claim of authority to create these programs
“would allow [the Executive] to grant lawful presence and work authorization to any
illegal alien in the United States—an untenable position in light of the INA’s intricate
system of immigration classifications and employment eligibility.” Texas v. United
States, 809 F.3d 134, 184 (5th Cir. 2015) (emphasis added), aff’d by an equally divided
Court, 136 S. Ct. 2271 (2016) (per curiam).
3.

In June 2017, after the Supreme Court’s ruling, the Executive Branch

rescinded prospectively its 2014 executive action creating DAPA and Expanded DACA.
4.

Later that month, Texas and other Plaintiffs proposed to resolve the

then-pending litigation if the Executive Branch also rescinded prospectively its 2012
executive action creating “DACA.” Otherwise, Plaintiffs wrote, they would amend
their complaint in that pending litigation to challenge DACA on the same bases that
they challenged DAPA and Expanded DACA.

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5.

On the September 2017 deadline for accepting Plaintiffs’ proposal, the

Executive Branch issued a memorandum rescinding DACA by directing that DACA
permits would not be issued or renewed starting March 5, 2018. Accordingly,
Plaintiffs voluntarily dismissed their then-pending litigation in this Court.
6.

Yet DACA is still in force and will remain in force for the indefinite

future. In January 2018, a California district court issued a preliminary injunction of
the Executive’s 2017 decision to rescind DACA, allowing several challenges to that
2017 executive action to proceed.
7.

In another challenge in the District of Columbia, the district court on

April 24, 2018, vacated the Executive’s decision to rescind DACA, granted summary
judgment that the executive action was substantively unlawful under the APA, and
ordered the Executive to continue issuing new DACA applications, staying that order
a mere 90 days. NAACP v. Trump, No. 1:17-cv-1907, 2018 WL 1920079, at *1, *28
(D.D.C. Apr. 24, 2018).
8.

Plaintiffs abided DACA while the controlling legal issues were decided

in the prior litigation and while the Executive reweighed DACA’s legality. But the
recent injunctions of the 2017 executive action undermine Plaintiffs’ express basis for
dismissing their prior litigation—and means that Plaintiffs will suffer ongoing harm
from DACA for the indefinite future.
9.

Plaintiffs thus bring this lawsuit challenging the 2012 executive action

creating DACA in the first place. This lawsuit does not call on this Court to resolve
any of the challenges pending in California or elsewhere about the validity of

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executive action in 2017. Rather, this lawsuit challenges whether the 2012 executive
action unilaterally creating DACA was itself lawful.
10.

This lawsuit also does not challenge the Executive Branch’s ability to

prioritize removal resources. It does not seek an injunction requiring the Executive
to remove any alien from the country. As the Fifth Circuit has noted, those matters
are distinct from programs like that here, which grant lawful-presence status.
11.

This lawsuit is emphatically about the rule of law. The policy merits of

immigration laws are debated in and decided by Congress. The Executive Branch
does not exercise a lawmaking role. Its duty is to take care that the law is faithfully
executed—substantive immigration law and procedural administrative law alike.
12.

Under the Fifth Circuit’s controlling precedent, DACA is unlawful for

the same reasons as DAPA and Expanded DACA were unlawful. See Texas, 809 F.3d
134. This lawsuit seeks declaratory and injunctive relief to that effect.
13.

Indeed, Plaintiffs’ challenge to the Obama Administration’s class-based

deferred-action programs has only become stronger since the prior suit challenging
DAPA and Expanded DACA. Each memorandum creating DACA, Expanded DACA,
or DAPA promised that “[t]his memorandum confers no . . . pathway to citizenship.”
See infra ¶¶ 84, 151. But, as of August 21, 2017, as many as 39,514 aliens had used
their DACA status to obtain a pathway to citizenship, through the conferral of lawfulpermanent-resident status (commonly known as “LPR” or “green card” status), and

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approximately 1,056 alien DACA recipients with LPR status had obtained United
States citizenship.1
14.

If ever there were a violation of the President’s duty to “take Care that

the Laws be faithfully executed,” U.S. Const. art. II, § 3, this is it. The Executive
unilaterally conferred lawful presence and work authorization on otherwise
unlawfully present aliens, and then the Executive used that lawful-presence
“dispensation” to unilaterally confer United States citizenship. Arizona v. United
States, 567 U.S. 387, 435 (2012) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).
15.

The Attorney General of the United States has announced that DACA

suffers from the same legal defects as DAPA and that, if DACA were challenged, “the
likeliest outcome is that it would be enjoined just as was DAPA.”2
16.

That is precisely what the Court should do here. This Court has

authority to immediately rescind and cancel all DACA permits currently in existence
because they are unlawful. However, Plaintiffs are amenable to a remedy that enjoins
Defendants from issuing or renewing DACA permits in the future, effectively phasing
out the program within two years.

See Press Release, Office of Sen. Chuck Grassley, Data Indicate Unauthorized
Immigrants Exploited Loophole to Gain Legal Status, Pathway to Citizenship (Sept.
1,
2017),
https://www.grassley.senate.gov/news/news-releases/data-indicateunauthorized-immigrants-exploited-loophole-gain-legal-status. “A valid, unexpired
Form I-551, Permanent Resident Card (also known as a ‘green card’), is the primary
evidence of an alien’s status as a Lawful Permanent Resident (LPR) of the United
States.” U.S. Dep’t of State, 9 Foreign Affairs Manual 202.2-6(a)(1) (2018).
2 Press Release, U.S. Dep’t of Justice, Attorney General Sessions Delivers
Remarks on DACA (Sept. 5, 2017), https://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/attorneygeneral-sessions-delivers-remarks-daca.
1

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JURISDICTION AND VENUE
17.

The Court has federal-question jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1331

because this action arises under the U.S. Constitution, art. II, § 3, and the
Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”), 5 U.S.C. § 706. The Court also has jurisdiction
under 28 U.S.C. § 1346(a)(2) because this is a civil action or claim against the United
States. Finally, the Court has jurisdiction to compel an officer or employee of the
above-named federal agencies to perform his or her duty under 28 U.S.C. § 1361.
18.

Venue is proper in this District under 28 U.S.C. § 1391(e) because the

State of Texas is a resident of this judicial district, and a substantial part of the events
or omissions giving rise to Plaintiffs’ claims occurred in this District.
19.

This Court is authorized to award the requested declaratory and

injunctive relief under the Declaratory Judgment Act, 28 U.S.C. §§ 2201-2202; the
APA, 5 U.S.C. § 706; and 28 U.S.C. § 1361.
THE PARTIES
20.

Plaintiffs are the States of Texas, Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana,

Nebraska, South Carolina, and West Virginia.
21.

The Plaintiff States have interests that fall within the zone of interests

of federal statutes on immigration policy. “The pervasiveness of federal regulation
does not diminish the importance of immigration policy to the States,” which “bear[ ]
many of the consequences of unlawful immigration.” Arizona, 567 U.S. at 397.

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22.

Defendant United States of America is sued under the APA. See 5 U.S.C.

§ 703 (“[T]he action for judicial review may be brought against the United
States . . . .”).
23.

Defendant Kirstjen M. Nielsen is the Secretary of the U.S. Department

of Homeland Security (“DHS”). Defendant Nielsen and DHS are responsible for U.S.
Citizenship and Immigration Services (“USCIS”), U.S. Customs and Border
Protection (“CBP”), and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (“ICE”).
Defendant Nielsen also is responsible for the continued administration of DACA and
Expanded DACA.
24.

Defendant Kevin K. McAleenan is the Commissioner of CBP. Defendant

McAleenan shares responsibility for the administration of DACA and Expanded
DACA.
25.

Defendant Thomas D. Homan is the Deputy Director and Acting

Director for ICE. ICE administers a formal program for allowing unlawfully present
aliens to apply for deferred action and to appeal for reconsideration if deferred action
is denied.
26.

Defendant L. Francis Cissna is the Director of USCIS. Cissna and

USCIS administer the DACA program. USCIS is the principal agency responsible for
the continued administration of DACA and Expanded DACA.
27.

Defendant Carla L. Provost is Acting Chief of the U.S. Border Patrol.

Provost and the U.S. Border Patrol are responsible for enforcing immigration laws
and the detection, interdiction and apprehension of those who attempt to illegally

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enter or smuggle people or contraband across U.S. borders between official ports of
entry.
FACTUAL BACKGROUND
I.

Congress Created an Extensive Statutory Framework in the Area of
Immigration, and Congress Has Not Given the Executive Unilateral
Power to Confer Lawful Presence and Work Authorization on
Unlawfully Present Aliens Simply Because the Executive Chooses Not
to Remove Them.
28.

“Policies pertaining to the entry of aliens and their right to remain here

are . . . entrusted exclusively to Congress.” Arizona, 567 U.S. at 409 (alteration in
original) (quoting Galvan v. Press, 347 U.S. 522, 531 (1954)).
29.

Congress has accordingly enacted “extensive and complex” statutes

governing “immigration and alien status.” Id. at 395.
30.

Title 8 of the United States Code, dealing with immigration, functions

as a “single integrated and all-embracing system” governing the presence of aliens in
the country. Id. at 400 (quoting Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U.S. 52, 74 (1941)).
31.

Through the Immigration and Nationality Act (“INA”), 8 U.S.C. §§ 1101

et seq., Congress has delineated “specifi[c] categories of aliens” who may be admitted
into and lawfully present in the country as well as the consequences for unlawful
presence. Arizona, 567 U.S. at 395.
32.

Congress has enacted complex provisions detailing how over forty

different classes of immigrants, nonimmigrants, refugees, and other aliens can attain
lawful presence in the country. See Texas, 809 F.3d at 179.

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33.

Moreover, under the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

(“IRCA”), Congress created “a comprehensive framework for ‘combating the
employment of illegal aliens.’” Arizona, 567 U.S. at 404 (quoting Hoffman Plastic
Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB, 535 U.S. 137, 147 (2002)).
34.

Congress reinforced immigration laws with the Illegal Immigration

Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (“IIRIRA”) and the Personal
Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (“PRWORA”),
responding to the States’ concerns about the effects of extending benefits to
unlawfully present aliens. E.g., 142 Cong. Rec. 26,680 (1996) (statement of Sen. Kyl)
(“With this immigration bill, we have the opportunity to lift this financial burden off
the States by forcing the Federal Government to take responsibility for reducing
illegal immigration . . . .”).
35.

Congress never gave the Executive Branch carte blanche to sidestep

these statutes and unilaterally permit unlawfully present aliens to be lawfully
present or obtain attendant benefits and work authorization simply because the
Executive chooses not to remove them.
36.

Lawful presence is an immigration classification created by Congress.

37.

Unlawful presence is an immigration classification created by Congress.

38.

The classification of lawful presence is a necessary prerequisite for

aliens to be eligible for Social Security. See 8 U.S.C. § 1611(b)(2).
39.

The classification of lawful presence is a necessary prerequisite for

aliens to be eligible for Medicare. See id. § 1611(b)(3).

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40.

The classification of lawful presence is a necessary prerequisite for

aliens to be eligible for a retirement benefit in PRWORA. See id. § 1611(b)(4).
41.

The classification of unlawful presence makes time spent in that status

count towards a reentry ban un IIRIRA, subject to statutory exception. See id. §
1182(a)(9)(B)(i) (3-year reentry ban for aliens “unlawfully present in the United
States for a period of more than 180 days but less than 1 year”; 10-year reentry ban
for aliens “unlawfully present in the United States for one year or more”).
42.

The classification of lawful presence is a necessary prerequisite for

aliens to be eligible for the Earned Income Tax Credit. See 26 U.S.C. § 32(c)(1)(A),
(c)(1)(E), (m) (eligibility based on an individual having a valid Social Security
number).
II.

Congress Has Declined to Pass the DREAM Act.
43.

On August 1, 2001, the Development, Relief, and Education for Alien

Minors (DREAM) Act was first introduced in Congress. See S. 1291, 107th Cong.
(2001).
44.

The DREAM Act has been introduced in some form in each Congress

since then. See, e.g., S. 1545, 108th Cong. (2003); S. 2075, 109th Cong. (2005); S. 2205,
110th Cong. (2007); S. 729, 111th Cong. (2009); H.R. 1751, 111th Cong. (2009); S. 952,
112th Cong. (2011); S. 744, 113th Cong. (2013); S. 3542, 114th Cong. (2016); H.R. 496,
115th Cong. (2017).
45.

The proposed DREAM Act would have allowed unlawfully present aliens

to apply for lawful presence through conditional-permanent-resident status if, among

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other things, (1) they entered the United States before the age of 16, and (2) they had
been in the United States continuously for five years.
46.

Congress has repeatedly declined to enact the DREAM Act.

47.

Features of the DREAM Act closely resemble DACA and DAPA.

48.

The DREAM Act’s coverage criteria are substantially similar to DACA’s

and Expanded DACA’s coverage criteria, as DACA’s and Expanded DACA’s coverage
criteria also require entry into the United States before the age of 16 and at least five
years of continuous residence in the United States.
49.

Former President Obama repeatedly urged Congress to pass the

DREAM Act.
50.

Former President Obama consistently asserted that he could not

achieve the goals of the DREAM Act on his own through unilateral Executive action.
He said, for instance:


“Comprehensive reform, that’s how we’re going to solve this problem. . . .
Anybody who tells you . . . [that] I can wave a magic wand and make it
happen hasn’t been paying attention [to] how this town works.” President
Barack Obama, Remarks on Comprehensive Immigration Reform (May 5,
2010),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2010/05/05/cinco-de-

mayo-a-call-comprehensive-immigration-reform.


“I am president, I am not king. I can’t do these things just by myself. . . .
[T]here’s a limit to the discretion that I can show because I am obliged to
execute the law. . . . I can’t just make the laws up by myself.” President

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Barack

Obama,

Interview

with

Univision

(Oct.

25,

2010),

http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/washington/2010/10/transcript-ofpresident-barack-obama-with-univision.html.


In response to a question about whether he could stop deportation of
unlawfully present students with an executive order: “Well, first of all,
temporary protective status historically has been used for special
circumstances where you have immigrants to this country who are fleeing
persecution in their countries, or there is some emergency situation in their
native land that required them to come to the United States. So it would
not be appropriate to use that just for a particular group that came here
primarily . . . for economic opportunity. With respect to the notion that I
can just suspend deportations through executive order, that’s just not the
case, because there are laws on the books that Congress has passed . . . .
There are enough laws on the books by Congress that are very clear in terms
of how we have to enforce our immigration system that for me to simply
through executive order ignore those congressional mandates would not
conform with my appropriate role as President.” President Barack Obama,
Remarks

at

Univision

Town

Hall

(Mar.

28,

2011),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2011/03/28/remarks-president-univision-town-hall (emphasis added).


“I can’t solve this problem by myself. . . . We’re going to have to change the
laws in Congress.” President Barack Obama, Remarks at a Facebook Town

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Hall (Apr. 20, 2011), https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2011/04/20/remarks-president-facebook-town-hall.


“I know some here wish that I could just bypass Congress and change the
law myself. But that’s not how democracy works. See, democracy is hard.
But it’s right. Changing our laws means doing the hard work of changing
minds and changing votes, one by one.” President Barack Obama, Remarks
at

Miami

Dade

College

Commencement

(Apr.

29,

2011),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2011/04/29/remarks-president-miami-dade-college-commencement.


“And sometimes when I talk to immigration advocates, they wish I could
just bypass Congress and change the law myself. But that’s not how a
democracy works. What we really need to do is to keep up the fight to pass
genuine, comprehensive reform. That is the ultimate solution to this
problem.”

President

Immigration

Reform

Barack
in

Obama,
El

Paso,

Remarks
Texas

on

Comprehensive

(May

10,

2011),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2011/05/10/remarks-president-comprehensive-immigration-reformel-paso-texas.


“[B]elieve me, the idea of doing things on my own is very tempting. . . . But
that’s not how . . . our system works. . . . That’s not how our democracy
functions. That’s not how our Constitution is written.” President Barack
Obama, Remarks to the National Council of La Raza (July 25, 2011),

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https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2011/07/25/remarks-president-national-council-la-raza.


“Administratively, we can’t ignore the law. . . . We are doing everything we
can administratively. But the fact of the matter is there are laws on the
books that I have to enforce.” President Barack Obama, Remarks in an
“Open

for

Questions”

Roundtable

(Sept.

28,

2011),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2011/09/28/remarks-president-open-questions-roundtable.
51.

Despite former President Obama’s statements, Congress refused to pass

the DREAM Act.
III.

The Obama Administration Unilaterally Created DACA, Which
Confers Eligibility for Lawful Presence, Work Authorization, and a
Host of Attendant Benefits.
52.

On June 15, 2012, former President Obama’s Secretary of Homeland

Security Napolitano announced the unilateral creation of a program that has become
known as Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (“DACA”). See Exhibit 1.
53.

This Department of Homeland Security memorandum creating DACA

was issued without APA notice-and-comment procedure.
54.

Through Secretary Napolitano’s DACA memo, the Executive Branch

ordered federal immigration officials to make qualifying unlawfully present aliens
eligible to receive “deferred action” status if they (1) entered the United States before
the age of 16; (2) had been in the United States continuously for at least five years;
(3) met certain educational standards or were veterans; (4) had not been convicted of
a felony, a “significant” misdemeanor or “multiple” misdemeanors, or otherwise posed
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a threat to national security or public safety; and (5) were not above the age of thirty.
Id. at 1.
55.

DACA’s “deferred action” terms last for 2 years. Id. at 2.

56.

DACA’s “deferred action” terms are renewable. Id.

57.

DACA’s criteria would cover approximately 1.7 million otherwise

unlawfully present aliens.
58.

As of September 30, 2017, DACA relief had been conferred on

approximately 800,000 aliens. See USCIS, Number of Form I-821D, Consideration of
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals, Fiscal Year 2012-2017, attached as
Exhibit 2 (798,980 initial applications and 1,002,810 renewal applications approved
from 2012 through September 2017).
59.

As of September 30, 2017, DACA relief had been conferred on

approximately 125,000 aliens in Texas alone. See id. at 2 (125,239 initial applications
and 128,812 renewal applications approved for Texas residents from 2012 through
September 2017).
60.

According to USCIS, deferred action under DACA “may be terminated

at any time, with or without a Notice of Intent to Terminate, at DHS’s discretion.”
USCIS, Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) Toolkit 16, Texas v. United
States, 86 F. Supp. 3d 591 (S.D. Tex. 2015) (No. 1:14-cv-254), ECF No. 38-6.
61.

DACA’s conferral of “deferred action” entails much more than the

Executive simply choosing not to remove an alien with DACA.
62.

The Executive Branch treats DACA’s conferral of “deferred action” as

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also conferring lawful presence: “An individual who has received deferred action is
authorized by DHS to be present in the United States, and is therefore considered by
DHS to be lawfully present during the period deferred action is in effect.” See, e.g.,
Frequently Asked Questions, USCIS, https://www.uscis.gov/archive/frequently-askedquestions (last visited May 1, 2018).
63.

Thus, “while [a DACA recipient’s] deferred action is in effect and, for

admissibility purposes, [the DACA recipient is] considered to be lawfully present in
the United States during that time.” Id. This has been true since 2012.
64.

The Executive’s implementation of DACA as conferring lawful presence

tracks the Executive’s practice stated in the 2014 DAPA and Expanded DACA
memorandum (the “DAPA Memo”) issued by former DHS Secretary Johnson, which
stated: “Deferred action . . . means that, for a specified period of time, an individual
is permitted to be lawfully present in the United States.” Exhibit 3 at 2.
65.

The United States has also confirmed in court that DACA “approved

deferred action status is lawful status that affords a period of authorized stay.” See
United States’ Brief as Amicus Curiae in Opposition to rehearing En Banc at 16, Ariz.
Dream Act Coal. v. Brewer, 757 F.3d 1053 (9th Cir. 2014) (No. 13-16248), ECF No. 75
(internal quotation marks omitted).
66.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence creates eligibility for a host of

benefits.

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67.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence appears to eliminate predicates

necessary under the INA to pursue proceedings to remove an alien from the United
States.
68.

An alien is removable if he is “present in the United States in violation

of [federal law].” 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(1)(B).
69.

An alien may also be removed if he cannot establish that he “is lawfully

present in the United States pursuant to a prior admission.” Id. § 1229a(c)(2)(B).
70.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence negates the removability charge

that an alien is “present in the United States in violation of [federal law].” Id.
§ 1227(a)(1)(B).
71.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence negates the removability charge

that an alien is present “without being admitted or paroled,” id. § 1182(a)(6)(A)(i), as
the Executive maintains that an alien granted lawful presence is not considered
“present in the United States without being admitted or paroled,” Pet. Br. at 9 n.3,
Texas, 136 S. Ct. 2271 (No. 15-674), 2016 WL 836758.
72.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence means a DACA recipient satisfies

the lawful-presence prerequisite for the alien to be eligible for Social Security. See 8
U.S.C. § 1611(b)(2).
73.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence means a DACA recipient satisfies

the lawful-presence prerequisite for the alien to be eligible for Medicare. See id.
§ 1611(b)(3).
74.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence means a DACA recipient satisfies

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the lawful-presence prerequisite for the alien to be eligible for a retirement benefit in
PRWORA. See id. § 1611(b)(4).
75.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence means a DACA recipient is eligible

for tolling of the IIRIRA reentry-ban clock that accrues during periods of unlawful
presence. See id. § 1182(a)(9)(B).
76.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence also creates eligibility for various

State benefits—including a driver’s license in most States.
77.

Additionally, the Executive Branch treats DACA’s conferral of “deferred

action” as conferring eligibility for “work authorization.” Exhibit 1 at 3.
78.

The Executive has consistently told aliens that their DACA applications

must be accompanied by applications for a Form I-765 application for work
authorization.

See

Frequently

Asked

Questions,

USCIS,

https://www.uscis.gov/archive/frequently-asked-questions (last visited May 1, 2018).
79.

Work authorization has been granted to the substantial majority of

DACA recipients.
80.

“The United States concedes that ‘[a]n alien with work authorization

may obtain a Social Security Number,’ ‘accrue quarters of covered employment,’ and
‘correct wage records to add prior covered employment within approximately three
years of the year in which the wages were earned or in limited circumstances
thereafter.’” Texas, 809 F.3d at 149 (citation omitted).
81.

DACA recipients are eligible for earned income tax credits once they

received a Social Security number.

18

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82.

Some DACA recipients have received Earned Income Tax Credits.

83.

The nonpartisan congressional Joint Committee on Taxation estimated

that, over a 10-year period, DAPA recipients could have received $1.7 billion in
Earned Income Tax Credit payments alone. Press Release, Office of Sen. Chuck
Grassley, Senators Introduce Bill Disallowing Tax Credit Under 2014 Executive
Actions

(Mar.

10,

2015),

https://www.grassley.senate.gov/news/news-

releases/senators-introduce-bill-disallowing-tax-credit-under-2014-executiveactions.
84.

The June 15, 2012 DACA memo stated that “[t]his memorandum confers

no . . . pathway to citizenship.” Exhibit 1 at 3.
85.

However, the Executive’s implementation of DACA has conferred

United States citizenship and a pathway to citizenship on some DACA recipients.
86.

The Executive has given some DACA recipients “advance parole.”

87.

The “advance parole” granted to aliens because of their receipt of DACA

has resulted in some of those aliens obtaining adjustment to LPR status, for which
they would otherwise be ineligible.
88.

LPR status is commonly referred to as possessing a “green card.” See

supra ¶ 13 & n.1.
89.

LPR status provides a pathway to United States citizenship. See 8

U.S.C. § 1427(a).
90.

By allowing advance parole, which satisfies a requisite for a green card

under the Executive’s practice, DACA allowed aliens to obtain citizenship when their

19

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unlawful entry into the United States would otherwise foreclose this pathway to
citizenship.
91.

The “advance parole” granted to aliens because of their receipt of DACA

has resulted in some of those aliens obtaining United States citizenship.
92.

“Advance parole” is an Executive practice that allows aliens to leave the

country and reenter. USCIS, Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) Toolkit,
supra, 23-24; Letter from León Rodríguez, Dir., USCIS, to Hon. Charles Grassley 34 (Oct. 9, 2014), Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d 591 (No. 1:14-cv-254), ECF No. 64-48;
Frequently Asked Questions, USCIS, https://www.uscis.gov/archive/frequently-askedquestions (last visited May 1, 2018).
93.

The Executive has deemed DACA and Expanded DACA recipients who

obtain “advance parole” from the Executive—and then leave and reenter the United
States—as being lawfully “admitted or paroled into the United States” upon reentry.
8 U.S.C. § 1255(a).
94.

Congressional statutes, however, generally impose a reentry ban for

aliens who were unlawfully present in the country for more than 180 days as an adult.
See id. § 1182(a)(9)(B)(i) (3-year reentry ban for aliens “unlawfully present in the
United States for a period of more than 180 days but less than 1 year”; 10-year reentry
ban for aliens “unlawfully present in the United States for one year or more”); id.
§ 1182(a)(9)(B)(iii)(I) (unlawful presence before 18 is not counted).
95.

Under DACA’s criteria, an alien must have been in the United States

for more than 180 days to possibly qualify for DACA.

20

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96.

Thus, Congress’s reentry ban applies to all DACA recipients over 18.5

years of age.
97.

The Executive’s discretion to waive this reentry ban is significantly

limited, as that waiver authority only applies “in the case of an immigrant who is the
spouse or son or daughter of a United States citizen or of an alien lawfully admitted
for permanent residence, if it is established to the satisfaction of the Attorney General
that the refusal of admission to such immigrant alien would result in extreme
hardship to the citizen or lawfully resident spouse or parent of such alien.” Id.
§ 1182(a)(9)(B)(v) (emphases added).
98.

Congressional statutes also significantly limit the Executive’s authority

to grant aliens temporary “parole” into the country: “The Attorney General may,
except as provided in subparagraph (B) or in section 1184(f) of this title, in his
discretion parole into the United States temporarily under such conditions as he may
prescribe only on a case-by-case basis for urgent humanitarian reasons or significant
public benefit any alien applying for admission to the United States, but such parole
of such alien shall not be regarded as an admission of the alien and when the purposes
of such parole shall, in the opinion of the Attorney General, have been served the
alien shall forthwith return or be returned to the custody from which he was paroled
and thereafter his case shall continue to be dealt with in the same manner as that of
any other applicant for admission to the United States.” Id. § 1182(d)(5)(A) (emphases
added).

21

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99.

The

Executive

considers

“advance

parole”

an

exercise

of

its

humanitarian-parole authority. E.g., DHS, DACA National Standard Operating
Procedures 125, Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d 591 (No. 1:14-cv-254), ECF No. 64-17.
100.

Unlike other categories of aliens seeking advance parole, the Executive

has not required DACA recipients to qualify for the “urgent humanitarian reasons”
or “significant public benefit” statutory requirements for parole. 8 U.S.C.
§ 1182(d)(5)(A). See USCIS, Instructions for Application for Travel Document 4-5
(expires

Dec.

31,

2018),

https://www.uscis.gov/system/files_force/files/form/i-

131instr.pdf?download=1.
101.

Instead, the Executive has considered DACA recipients eligible for

advance parole based on its own far broader criteria:


“humanitarian purposes,” such as “travel to obtain medical treatment,
attending funeral services for a family member, or visiting an ailing
relative”;



“educational purposes,” such as participating in “semester-abroad
programs” or “academic research”; or



“employment purposes,” including “overseas assignments, interviews,
conferences or, training, or meetings with clients overseas.”

Frequently Asked Questions, USCIS, https://www.uscis.gov/archive/frequently-askedquestions (last visited May 1, 2018).

22

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102.

The Executive’s conferral of advance parole on DACA recipients did not

invoke the limited “extreme hardship” exception to the reentry ban that applies to
DACA recipients. 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(B)(v).
103.

To the contrary, the Executive considers an alien with advance parole

not to have made a “departure” from the United States by physically leaving the
country, so there would never be a triggering of the reentry bar when that alien
returns to the United States and seeks parole into the country at the port of entry. 7
USCIS,

Policy

Manual,

pt.

M,

ch.

3

(last

updated

Aug.

23,

2017),

https://www.uscis.gov/policymanual/HTML/PolicyManual-Volume7-PartMChapter3.html (citing In re Arrabally and Yerrabelly, 25 I&N Dec. 771 (BIA 2012)).
104.

Advance parole is unlawful as applied to DACA recipients over 18.5

years of age because those aliens are reentry-barred under 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(B)
and the Executive has not purported to excuse that bar under the limited exception
of § 1182(a)(9)(B)(v).
105.

Independently, advance parole is unlawful as it has been applied to all

DACA recipients because the Executive has not required DACA recipients to qualify
for the “urgent humanitarian reasons” or “significant public benefit” statutory
requirements for parole. Id. § 1182(d)(5)(A).
106.

For an alien to be eligible to adjust to lawful-permanent-resident status

(and thus obtain a pathway to United States citizenship), the alien must be lawfully
“admitted or paroled into the United States.” Id. § 1255(a).

23

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107.

Thus, leaving and reentering the United States with advance parole

removes a significant impediment for some otherwise unlawfully present aliens to
seek adjustment to LPR status (which entails a pathway to United States
citizenship). See Immigrant Legal Res. Ctr., Practice Advisory: DACA, Advance
Parole, and Family Petitions 2-3, 7 (June 2016), https://www.ilrc.org/sites/default/
files/resources/prac_adv-daca_advance_parole_fam_pet-20160531.pdf.
108.

Indeed, DACA recipients have successfully adjusted their status after

being paroled back into the United States. See, e.g., id. at 7. 
109.

As of December 31, 2015, at least 2,994 DACA recipients were approved

for adjustment to LPR status. See Letter from León Rodríguez, Dir., USCIS, to Hon.
Charles E. Grassley (June 29, 2016), https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/imo/media/
doc/2016-06-29%20USCIS%20to%20CEG%20-%20DACA%20Advance%20Parole%20
Program.pdf.
110.

As of August 21, 2017, approximately 39,514 DACA recipients were

adjusted to LPR status. See Press Release, Office of Sen. Chuck Grassley, Data
Indicate Unauthorized Immigrants Exploited Loophole to Gain Legal Status,
Pathway to Citizenship (Sept. 1, 2017), https://www.grassley.senate.gov/news/newsreleases/data-indicate-unauthorized-immigrants-exploited-loophole-gain-legal-status.
111.

Thus, some individuals now have a previously unavailable pathway to

United States citizenship on account of receiving DACA, even though the June 15,
2012 DACA memo said that DACA would confer no pathway to United States
citizenship.

24

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 25 of 137

112.

Of those aliens, as of August 21, 2017, approximately 2,181 DACA

recipients have applied for United States citizenship, and approximately 1,056 DACA
recipients have been granted United States citizenship. See id.
113.

By enabling this pathway to citizenship, DACA provided an additional

incentive for unlawfully present aliens, who would otherwise be subject to up to a tenyear reentry ban, to remain in the United States rather than return to their country
of nationality. Cf. Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 635.
114.

For an alien whose pathway to citizenship (for example, through an

immigrant visa from marriage to a United States citizen) is foreclosed by his accrued
unlawful presence, traveling to the alien’s home country and returning with advance
parole is likely preferable to returning to the alien’s home country and waiting out a
ten-year unlawful-presence reentry bar.
115.

Because it is unlawful to grant advance parole premised on DACA

status, it is unlawful for the Executive to adjust an alien’s status to lawfulpermanent-resident status based on that advance parole.
116.

Consequently, it is unlawful for the Executive to confer lawful-

permanent-resident status or United States citizenship on DACA recipients who were
ineligible to adjust their status but for advance parole.
117.

Before the 2012 DACA memo issued, former President Obama asked the

Department of Justice’s Office of Legal Counsel (“OLC”) whether DACA “would be
legally permissible.” Memorandum Opinion for the Secretary of Homeland Security

25

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 26 of 137

and the Counsel to the President 18 n.8 (Nov. 19, 2014) (“OLC Memo”), attached as
Exhibit 4.
118.

The OLC Memo never mentioned that DACA or Expanded DACA

confers lawful presence.
119.

The OLC Memo never mentioned that DACA or Expanded DACA could

confer a pathway to citizenship.
120.

OLC’s “preliminary view was that such a program would be permissible,

provided that immigration officials retained discretion to evaluate each application
on an individualized basis.” Id.
121.

OLC explained that “extending deferred action to individuals who

satisfied these and other specified criteria on a class-wide basis would raise distinct
questions not implicated by ad hoc grants of deferred action.” Id.
122.

OLC “advised that it was critical that, like past policies that made

deferred action available to certain classes of aliens, the DACA program require
immigration officials to evaluate each application for deferred action on a case-bycase basis, rather than granting deferred action automatically to all applicants who
satisfied the threshold eligibility criteria.” Id.
IV.

The Obama Administration’s Refusal to Follow Immigration Laws
Caused a Humanitarian Crisis.
123.

The Executive Branch did not stop at DACA with dispensing with the

Nation’s immigration laws. Rather, the former Presidential Administration adopted
a policy that encouraged international child smuggling across the Texas-Mexico

26

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 27 of 137

border. See Order at 2, United States v. Nava-Martinez, No. 1:13-cr-00441 (S.D. Tex.
Dec. 13, 2013), ECF No. 37.
124.

The defendant in Nava-Martinez, an admitted human trafficker, was

caught attempting to smuggle a ten-year-old Salvadoran girl into the United States.
Id. at 1.
125.

In Nava-Martinez, the district court noted that this was “the fourth case

with the same factual situation this Court has had in as many weeks.” Id. at 3.
Although the human traffickers were apprehended in each case, “the DHS completed
the criminal conspiracy . . . by delivering the minors to the custody of the parent.” Id.
126.

This was done pursuant to DHS’s “apparent policy . . . of completing the

criminal mission of individuals who are violating the border security of the United
States.” Id. at 2. As the district court observed, “[t]his DHS policy is a dangerous
course of action.” Id. Under the policy, “instead of enforcing the laws of the United
States, the Government [takes] direct steps to help the individuals who violated it.”
Id. at 3.
127.

Moreover, the district court found that DHS’s policy promotes human

trafficking, which in turn “help[s] fund the illegal drug cartels which are a very real
danger for both citizens of this country and Mexico.” Id. at 6. The district court
explained that citizens of the United States bear the economic brunt of this policy,
because DHS “fund[s] these evil ventures with their tax dollars.” Id. at 8. In addition,
the policy harms the citizens of each country that suffers from the “nefarious
activities of the cartels.” Id.

27

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128.

DACA and the policy described in Nava-Martinez have had and continue

to have dire consequences in Plaintiff States. In the summer of 2014, an enormous
wave of unlawfully present aliens surged across the Texas-Mexico border, creating
what President Obama described as a “humanitarian crisis.” Nick Miroff & Joshua
Partlow, Central American Migrants Overwhelm Border Patrol Station in Texas,
WASH. POST (June 12, 2014).
129.

Law enforcement officers reported “picking up children as young as 4

without their parents and other children with Hello Kitty backpacks, cellphones and
the telephone numbers of U.S. relatives on note cards.” Miroff & Partlow, supra.
130.

But the humanitarian crisis is by no means limited to unaccompanied

children. “[A]n unprecedented surge of families crossing illegally into the U.S.” has
also been recognized. Cindy Carcamo, Rumors of U.S. Haven for Families Spur Rise
in Illegal Immigration, L.A. TIMES (June 6, 2014). While immigration officials do not
have an official count of such families, they have acknowledged that “the numbers
appear to be substantial.” Id.
131.

This wave of immigration was concentrated in the Rio Grande Valley of

South Texas. Miroff & Partlow, supra. A June 2014 report noted that “[e]very day,
hundreds of Central American migrants, in groups as large as 250 people, are wading
across the muddy Rio Grande.” Id.
132.

The crisis has imposed enormous law enforcement costs on Plaintiff

States. For example, the Texas Department of Public Safety estimated in 2014 that
it spent $1.3 million a week on troopers and resources to deal with the immigration

28

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surge; in addition, former Governor Perry deployed 1,000 National Guard troops to
the border at a cost of $38 million.
133.

This crisis was caused by the immigration policies of the federal

government, including the policy already held to be unlawful. As Ronald D. Vitiello,
then serving as Deputy Chief of U.S. Border Patrol, reportedly explained in a 2014
memorandum (“Vitiello Memorandum”), “[i]f the U.S. government fails to deliver
adequate consequences to deter aliens from attempting to illegally enter the U.S., the
result will be an even greater increase in the rate of recidivism and first-time illicit
entries.” The Obama Administration acknowledged that there was a “growing
perception minors are crossing the border because they feel they will not be deported
by the administration.” Brett LoGiurato, There’s a Staggering Humanitarian Crisis
on the US Border, and It’s Only Going to Get Worse, BUS. INSIDER (June 16, 2014).
Indeed, a research report commissioned by DHS revealed that “[w]ord had spread in
Central America about a ‘lack of consequences’ for illegal entry” and that “[s]mugglers
were exploiting the system.” Susan Carroll, Report Warned of Child Migrant Crisis,
HOUSTON CHRON. (June 17, 2014).
134.

Former President Obama himself predicted this outcome. On July 1,

2010, he explained that it would be “both unwise and unfair” to “ignore the laws on
the books and put an end to deportation” because it “would suggest to those thinking
about coming here illegally that there will be no repercussions for such a decision.”
That in turn, President Obama recognized, “could lead to a surge in more illegal
immigration.” As President Obama concluded, “no matter how decent they are, no

29

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matter their reasons, the 11 million who broke these laws should be held
accountable.” President Barack Obama, Remarks on Comprehensive Immigration
Reform

(July

1,

2010),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-

office/remarks-president-comprehensive-immigration-reform.
135.

The Obama Administration, however, contributed to the surge of illegal

immigration by refusing to enforce the laws on the books. On average, only 1,600
unaccompanied children are removed each year; in 2013, there were over 20,000
detentions of unaccompanied children from Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador,
but only 496 unaccompanied children from those countries were repatriated. Carroll,
supra. The total number of unlawfully present children deported by the Obama
Administration in 2013 was only 1,669—an 80 percent reduction from 2008. Brian
Bennett, Deportation Data Won’t Dispel Rumors Drawing Migrant Minors to U.S.,
L.A. TIMES (July 5, 2014).
136.

By fiscal year 2016, the number of unaccompanied children captured at

the border spiked to nearly 60,000. See Press Release, United States Border Patrol
Southwest Family Unit Subject and Unaccompanied Alien Children Apprehensions
Fiscal Year 2016: Statement by Secretary Johnson on Southwest Border Security
(Oct.

18,

2016),

https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/stats/southwest-border-

unaccompanied-children/fy-2016.
137.

Similarly, adults with children who are detained at the border are

routinely released and allowed to travel within the United States. Carcamo, supra.
And while they may be instructed to show up for a follow-up appointment, “ICE

30

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 31 of 137

officials said they couldn’t guarantee that they would pursue all cases in which
immigrants do not show up for follow-up appointments.” Id. Tellingly, the immigrants
arrested for illegally entering the U.S. refer to ICE’s Notice to Appear documents as
“permisos,” or permits. Byron York, On Immigrant Surge, White House Story Falls
Apart, WASH. EXAMINER (June 16, 2014).
138.

Unsurprisingly, the unlawfully present aliens crossing the border are

motivated primarily by the belief that they will not be deported. The federal
government’s own analysis demonstrates as much. When Border Patrol agents
recently questioned 230 unlawfully present aliens about why they came, “[t]he results
showed overwhelmingly that the immigrants, including those classified as . . .
unaccompanied children, were motivated by the belief that they would be allowed to
stay in the United States.” Id.
139.

Multiple reports indicate that unlawfully present aliens are counting on

federal officials for help in reuniting with their friends or family in the U.S. According
to a June 2014 report, hundreds of Central American migrants were “turni n g
themselves in to the Border Patrol” on a daily basis. Miroff & Partlow, supra. One
unlawfully present alien stated that she and her group “had looked forward to being
caught . . . at one point even waving down federal helicopters . . . because of the
welcoming treatment they had assumed they would receive.” Carcamo, supra.
Another planned to surrender to Border Patrol because she had heard “that the
Americans are helping Hondurans right now,” especially women and children. Miroff
& Partlow, supra. All of the 230 unlawfully present aliens interviewed by Border

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Patrol agents for their report “stated that they had family members or, to a lesser
extent, friends already living in the U.S.” York, supra.
140.

The Obama Administration conceded that its failure to enforce the

federal immigration laws increased the flow of illegal immigration across the TexasMexico border. See Vitiello Memorandum, supra.
141.
V.

The effects of that failure have caused acute crises in Plaintiff States.

Former President Obama “Change[d] the Law” Again—Through the
2014 DHS Memorandum Creating Expanded DACA and DAPA.
142.

Between the unveiling of the 2012 DACA memorandum and the

midterm elections in November 2014, former President Obama repeatedly stated that
any extension of DACA would be unlawful and would have to be accomplished by
legislation. He said, for instance:


“[A]s the head of the executive branch, there’s a limit to what I can do. . . .
[U]ntil we have a law in place that provides a pathway for legalization
and/or citizenship for the folks in question, we’re going to . . . continue to be
bound by the law.” President Barack Obama, Remarks at Univision Town
Hall with Jorge Ramos and Maria Elena Salinas (Sept. 20, 2012),
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2012/09/20/remarks-president-univision-town-hall-jorge-ramos-andmaria-elena-salina.



“We are a nation of immigrants. . . . But we’re also a nation of laws. So what
I’ve said is we need to fix a broken immigration system. And I’ve done
everything I can on my own.” President Barack Obama, Remarks at Second
32

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 33 of 137

Presidential

Debate

(Oct.

16,

2012),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2012/10/17/remarks-president-and-governor-romney-secondpresidential-debate.


In response to a question about the possibility of a moratorium on
deportations for non-criminals: “I’m not a king. I am the head of the
executive branch of government. I’m required to follow the law.” President
Barack

Obama,

Interview

with

Univision

(Jan.

30,

2013),

http://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/Politics/transcript-presidentbarack-obama-interview-univisions-maria-elena/story?id=18365068.


In response to the question whether he could do for “an undocumented
mother of three” what he did for DACA recipients: “I’m not a king. . . . [W]e
can’t simply ignore the law. When it comes to the dreamers– we were able
to identify that group . . . . But to sort through all the possible cases– of
everybody who might have a sympathetic story to tell is very difficult to do.
This is why we need comprehensive immigration reform. . . . [I]f this was
an issue that I could do unilaterally I would have done it a long time ago. .
. . The way our system works is Congress has to pass legislation. I then get
an opportunity to sign it and implement it.” President Barack Obama,
Interview

with

Telemundo

(Jan.

30,

2013),

http://nbclatino.com/2013/01/30/obama-tells-telemundo-he-hopes-forimmigration-overhaul-within-6-months/.

33

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 34 of 137



“[T]his is something I’ve struggled with throughout my presidency. The
problem is that . . . I’m the president of the United States. I’m not the
emperor of the United States. . . . And what that means is that we have
certain obligations to enforce the laws that are in place . . . . [W]e’ve kind of
stretched our administrative flexibility as much as we can.” President
Barack Obama, Remarks on Immigration Reform (Feb. 14, 2013),
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-e9lmy_8FZM&feature=youtu.be.



“I think that it is very important for us to recognize that the way to solve
this problem has to be legislative. . . . And we’ve been able to provide help
through deferred action for young people and students . . . . But this is a
problem that needs to be fixed legislatively.” President Barack Obama,
Interview

with

Univision

(July

16,

2013),

http://communications-

univisionnews.tumblr.com/post/55694544539/univision-news-transcriptadriana-vargas.


“[M]y job in the executive branch is supposed to be to carry out the laws
that are passed. Congress has said ‘here is the law’ when it comes to those
who are undocumented, and they’ve allocated a whole bunch of money for
enforcement. . . . What we can do is then carve out the DREAM Act, saying
young people who have basically grown up here are Americans that we
should welcome. . . . But if we start broadening that, then essentially I would
be ignoring the law in a way that I think would be very difficult to defend
legally. So that’s not an option. . . . What I’ve said is . . . there’s a path to get

34

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this done, and that’s through Congress.” President Barack Obama,
Interview

with

Telemundo

(Sept.

17,

2013),

https://www.realclearpolitics.com/video/2013/09/17/obama_halting_deport
ations_not_an_option_would_be_ignoring_the_law.html (emphasis added).


“[I]f, in fact, I could solve all these problems without passing laws in
Congress, then I would do so. But we’re also a nation of laws. That’s part of
our tradition. And so the easy way out is to try to yell and pretend like I can
do something by violating our laws. And what I’m proposing is the harder
path, which is to use our democratic processes to achieve the same goal that
you want to achieve.” President Barack Obama, Remarks on Immigration
Reform

in

San

Francisco,

California

(Nov.

25,

2013),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-pressoffice/2013/11/25/remarks-president-immigration-reform-san-francisco-ca.


“[W]hat I’ve said in the past remains true, which is until Congress passes a
new law, then I am constrained in terms of what I am able to do. What I’ve
done is to use my prosecutorial discretion . . . . What we’ve said is focus on
folks who are engaged in criminal activity, focus on people who are engaged
in gang activity. Do not focus on young people, who we’re calling DREAMers
. . . . That already stretched my administrative capacity very far. But I was
confident that that was the right thing to do. But at a certain point the
reason that these deportations are taking place is, Congress said, [‘]you
have to enforce these laws.[’] They fund the hiring of officials at the

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department that’s charged with enforcing. And I cannot ignore those laws
any more than I could ignore, you know, any of the other laws that are on
the books.” President Barack Obama, Interview with Univision (Mar. 6,
2014),

http://communications-

univisionnews.tumblr.com/post/79266471431/univision-news-transcriptinterview-with (emphasis added).
143.

Former President Obama repeatedly called on Congress to pass an

immigration reform bill. Congress did not do so.
144.

After being rebuffed by Congress again, former President Obama

announced that he would unilaterally create a program conferring lawful presence
and work authorizations for an additional estimated 4 million unlawfully present
aliens.
145.

On November 20, 2014, former DHS Secretary Johnson issued the

DAPA memo creating Expanded DACA and DAPA. See Texas, 809 F.3d at 146-48;
Exhibit 3.
146.

Like the DACA memo, the DAPA memo again created a class-based

deferred-action program—that confers eligibility for lawful presence and work
authorization—without

congressional

authorization

or

notice-and-comment

procedure.
147.

The DAPA memo first expanded the class eligible for DACA relief by:

(1) eliminating the DACA criteria’s age cap, (2) increasing the DACA term from two

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years to three years, and (3) pushing the DACA date-of-entry deadline from 2007 to
2010. Exhibit 3 at 3-4.
148.

The DAPA memo then directed USCIS “to establish a process, similar to

DACA,” for granting three-year terms of deferred action to a new class of aliens:
unlawfully present aliens who were parents of United States citizens and other lawful
permanent residents who were not enforcement priorities. Id. at 4.
149.

Together, the coverage criteria for DAPA and Expanded DACA would

have covered approximately 40% of the country’s known population of unlawfully
present aliens.
150.

The 2014 DAPA and Expanded DACA—like the original 2012 DACA—

did not merely forbear from removing aliens who qualified. All three affirmatively
granted lawful presence and eligibility for work authorization to those who would
otherwise be unlawfully present and unauthorized to work.
151.

The November 20, 2014 DAPA memo stated that “[t]his memorandum

confers no . . . pathway to citizenship.” Id. at 5.
152.

The DAPA memo stated that “deferred action . . . may be terminated at

any time at the agency’s discretion.” Id. at 2.
153.

Former President Obama candidly admitted that his plan, through

these programs, was unilateral legislation: “What you’re not paying attention to is,
I just took an action to change the law.” Steven T. Dennis, Obama on Immigration: “I
Just Took an Action to Change the Law,” ROLL CALL (Nov. 25, 2014) (emphasis added),

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http://www.rollcall.com/news/home/immigration-reform-news-obama-immigrationaction-law.
154.

Former President Obama further admitted that he was changing the

law because Congress chose not to: “[T]o those members of Congress who question my
authority to make our immigration system work better . . . I have one answer: Pass a
bill. . . . And the day I sign that bill into law, the actions I take will no longer be
necessary.” President Barack Obama, Remarks by the President in Address to the
Nation on Immigration (Nov. 20, 2014), https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/thepress-office/2014/11/20/remarks-president-address-nation-immigration.
155.

Former President Obama also made clear that he was “offer[ing] the

following deal” to unlawfully present aliens: “[I]f you’ve taken responsibility, you’ve
registered, undergone a background check, you’re paying taxes, you’ve been here for
five years, you’ve got roots in the community—you’re not going to be deported. . . . If
you meet the criteria, you can come out of the shadows, you can get right with the
law.” President Barack Obama, Remarks by the President on Immigration (Nov. 21,
2014),

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/11/21/remarks-

president-immigration.
156.

Through the creation of Expanded DACA and DAPA, the Obama

Administration again dispensed with certain of the Nation’s immigration laws
without congressional approval.

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VI.

Courts Rule that Expanded DACA and DAPA are Unlawful, Stopping
Former President Obama’s Unlawful Executive Overreach.
157.

On December 3, 2014, Plaintiffs and other States filed a lawsuit in this

district court seeking to immediately halt the implementation of Expanded DACA
and DAPA.
158.

On February 16, 2015, the district court granted the requested relief and

issued a preliminary injunction of Expanded DACA and DAPA. In its opinion, the
district court explained, despite the Defendants’ claims to the contrary, that the
plaintiffs were likely to succeed on the merits of their claim and that they would suffer
irreparable harm if Expanded DACA and DAPA went into effect. Texas, 86 F. Supp.
3d at 671-72, 674.
159.

The Defendants issued Expanded DACA permits both before and after

the district court entered the preliminary injunction of the 2014 memorandum. Texas
v. United States, No. 1:14-cv-254, 2016 WL 3211803 (S.D. Tex. May 19, 2016).
160.

The district court, see Texas v. United States, No. 1:14-cv-254, 2015 WL

1540022, at *8 (S.D. Tex. Apr. 7, 2015), and the Fifth Circuit, Texas v. United States,
787 F.3d 733, 769, 784 (5th Cir. 2015), denied a stay of the preliminary injunction.
161.

The Defendants appealed from the district court’s preliminary

injunction. The Fifth Circuit affirmed, finding that the plaintiffs had standing to
challenge the Executive’s class-based deferred-action programs that grant lawful
presence and work authorization, that such programs are judicially reviewable, that
Expanded DACA and DAPA were unlawful both procedurally (as promulgated
without notice and comment) and substantively (as foreclosed by substantive federal
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statutes), and that the plaintiffs satisfied the equitable requirements for a
preliminary injunction. Texas, 809 F.3d at 150-88.
162.

On June 23, 2016, the Supreme Court affirmed the Fifth Circuit’s

judgment by an equally divided Court. Texas, 136 S. Ct. 2271.
VII.

On June 15, 2017, DHS Secretary Kelly Rescinded the 2014 DAPA and
Expanded DACA Memo, But the Secretary Left in Effect the 2012
DACA Program and Some Expanded DACA Permits Granted Under
the Rescinded 2014 Memo.
163.

On July 18, 2016, the Defendants filed a petition for rehearing in the

Supreme Court. The parties to the DAPA litigation agreed to continue to stay all
merits proceedings before the district court until the Supreme Court ruled on the
petition. Texas, No. 1:14-cv-254 (S.D. Tex. Aug. 31, 2016) (Text Order).
164.

On October 3, 2016, the Supreme Court denied the Defendants’ petition

for rehearing. United States v. Texas, 137 S. Ct. 285 (2016).
165.

On November 18, 2016, the parties to the DAPA lawsuit filed a joint

motion to stay the merits proceedings until February 20, 2017, to allow the new
Presidential Administration time to consider its position. Joint Motion to Stay Merits
Proceedings, Texas, No. 1:14-cv-254 (S.D. Tex. Nov. 18, 2016), ECF No. 430.
166.

On January 19, 2017, the district court granted a stay of merits

proceedings in the DAPA litigation until March 17, 2017. Texas, No. 1:14-cv-254 (S.D.
Tex. Jan. 19, 2017) (Order), ECF No. 435.
167.

On March 17, 2017, the Defendants filed another unopposed motion to

stay district court proceedings in the DAPA lawsuit—this time seeking until June 15,
2017 to propose a scheduling order. Unopposed Motion to Stay Merits Proceedings,
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Texas, No. 1:14-cv-254 (S.D. Tex. Mar. 17, 2016), ECF No. 438.
168.

On March 22, 2017, the district court granted the stay of the DAPA

litigation and ordered the parties to propose a discovery schedule by June 15, 2017.
Texas, No. 1:14-cv-254 (S.D. Tex. Mar. 22, 2017) (Order), ECF No. 439.
169.

On June 15, 2017, the Defendants again requested a two-week stay of

merits proceedings in the DAPA lawsuit. Unopposed Motion to Stay Merits
Proceedings, Texas, No. 1:14-cv-254 (S.D. Tex. June 15, 2017), ECF No. 444.
170.

On that same date—June 15, 2017—former DHS Secretary Kelly issued

a new memorandum “rescind[ing] the November 20, 2014 DAPA memorandum and
the policies announced therein.” Exhibit 5 at 2.
171.

Secretary Kelly added that “[t]he June 15, 2012 DACA memorandum,

however, will remain in effect.” Id.
172.

Secretary Kelly also explained that his memorandum did “not alter the

remaining periods of deferred action under the Expanded DACA policy granted
between issuance of the November 20, 2014 Memorandum and the February 16, 2015
preliminary injunction order in the Texas litigation, nor does it affect the validity of
related Employment Authorization Documents (EADs) granted during the same span
of time.” Id. at 2 n.3.
173.

Secretary Kelly “remind[ed] [USCIS] officers that (1) deferred action, as

an act of prosecutorial discretion, may only be granted on a case-by-case basis.” Id.

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174.

This reminder echoes the DACA memo language that the district court

found pretextual in Texas’s challenge to DAPA and Expanded DACA. See Texas, 86
F. Supp. 3d at 669 n.101.
VIII. On September 5, 2017, DHS Withdrew the 2012 DACA Memorandum in
Response to an Imminent Legal Challenge Threatened by Plaintiffs
and Other States.
175.

On June 29, 2017, Texas Attorney General Ken Paxton, the attorneys

general of nine other states (including Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Nebraska,
South Carolina, and West Virginia), and the governor of Idaho sent a letter to the
federal Executive Branch urging the Trump Administration to phase out DACA. See
Exhibit 6.
176.

Plaintiffs’ June 29, 2017 letter requested “that the Secretary of

Homeland Security rescind the June 15, 2012 DACA memorandum and order that
the Executive Branch will not renew or issue any new DACA or Expanded DACA
permits in the future.” Id. at 2.
177.

Plaintiffs’ letter explained how DACA is unlawful under the Fifth

Circuit’s decision in Texas. Id. at 1-2.
178.

Plaintiffs’ letter proposed a resolution of the then-pending lawsuit, and

avoiding additional litigation relating to DACA: “If, by September 5, 2017, the
Executive Branch agrees to rescind the June 15, 2012 DACA memorandum and not
to renew or issue any new DACA or Expanded DACA permits in the future, then the
plaintiffs that successfully challenged DAPA and Expanded DACA will voluntarily
dismiss their lawsuit currently pending in the Southern District of Texas. Otherwise,

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the complaint in that case will be amended to challenge both the DACA program and
the remaining Expanded DACA permits.” Id. at 2.
179.

On September 4, 2017, United States Attorney General Sessions wrote

the DHS Acting Secretary, advising that DHS should rescind DACA. Letter from
Attorney

General

Sessions

to

Acting

Secretary

Duke,

https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/17_0904_DOJ_AG-letterDACA.pdf.
180.

Attorney General Sessions noted that “DACA was effectuated by the

previous administration through executive action, without proper statutory authority
and with no established end-date, after Congress’ repeated rejection of proposed
legislation that would have accomplished a similar result.” Id.
181.

Attorney General Sessions advised: “Because the DACA policy has the

same legal and constitutional defects that the courts recognized as to DAPA, it is
likely that potentially imminent litigation would yield similar results with respect to
DACA.” Id.
182.

On September 5, 2017, United States Attorney General Sessions

publicly announced that DHS would rescind the 2012 DACA memorandum. U.S.
Dep’t of Justice, Attorney General Sessions Delivers Remarks on DACA (Sept. 5,
2017),

https://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/attorney-general-sessions-delivers-

remarks-daca.
183.

During his remarks, Attorney General Sessions stated that by

implementing DACA the Obama Administration had “deliberately sought to achieve

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what the legislative branch specifically refused to authorize on multiple occasions”
and that “[s]uch an open-ended circumvention of immigration laws was an
unconstitutional exercise of authority by the Executive Branch.” Id.
184.

Attorney General Sessions further explained that DACA was

“vulnerable to the same legal and constitutional challenges that the courts recognized
with respect to the DAPA program” and that if DHS decided to maintain DACA, “the
likeliest outcome is that it would be enjoined just as was DAPA.” Id.
185.

Attorney General Sessions also observed that “[t]he effect of [DACA],

among other things, contributed to a surge of unaccompanied minors on the southern
border that yielded terrible humanitarian consequences. It also denied jobs to
hundreds of thousands of Americans by allowing those same jobs to go to illegal
aliens.” Id.
186.

On September 5, 2017, DHS issued a memorandum rescinding the 2012

DACA memorandum. See Exhibit 7.
187.

The September 2017 memorandum initiated the DACA wind-down

process. The memorandum provided that DHS would “adjudicate—on an individual,
case by case basis—properly filed pending DACA renewal requests and associated
applications for Employment Authorization Documents from current beneficiaries
that have been accepted by the Department as of [September 5, 2017], and from
current beneficiaries whose benefits will expire between the date of this
memorandum and March 5, 2018 that have been accepted by the Department as of
October 5, 2017.” Id. at 5.

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188.

The September 2017 memorandum allowed for the orderly phase-out of

DACA.
189.

DHS’s September 2017 memorandum and the impending wind-down of

DACA thus satisfied the condition proposed by Plaintiffs’ June 29, 2017 letter for
ending the then-pending lawsuit and avoiding additional litigation regarding DACA.
190.

The Plaintiffs therefore did not file an amended complaint challenging

DACA in September 2017.
191.

Instead, the parties to the then-pending DAPA/Expanded DACA lawsuit

filed a stipulation of dismissal on September 12, 2017, in that suit. Stipulation of
Dismissal, Texas, No. 1:14-cv-254 (S.D. Tex. Sept. 12, 2017), ECF No. 473,
IX.

Following the September 2017 Memorandum, Numerous Parties Seek
to Halt the Recession of DACA—Acknowledging, in the Process, that
DACA Was Never Lawful.
192.

Following DHS’s September 2017 DACA rescission memorandum,

lawsuits were filed claiming that the decision to rescind DACA was itself unlawful.
Five of these actions were filed in the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of
California, and at least four other lawsuits were filed in other federal district courts.
See Complaint, Trs. of Princeton Univ. v. United States, No. 1:17-cv-2325 (D.D.C. Nov.
3, 2017), ECF No. 1; Complaint, NAACP, No. 1:17-cv-1907 (D.D.C. Apr. 24, 2018),
ECF No. 1; 2d Am. Complaint, Vidal v. Nielsen, No. 1:16-cv-4756 (E.D.N.Y. Sept. 29,
2017), ECF No. 29; Complaint, New York v. Trump, No. 1:17-cv-5228 (E.D.N.Y. Sept.
6, 2017), ECF No. 1.

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193.

In those challenges to the 2017 executive action, the plaintiffs’ own

pleadings essentially concede that DACA itself was unlawful because—as Plaintiff
States allege in this suit—it was a substantive rule that modified rights and was thus
required to go through APA notice-and-comment procedures.
194.

For example, in a challenge brought by the University of California, the

plaintiffs claim that the September 2017 rescission memorandum “constitutes a
substantive rule subject to APA’s notice-and-comment requirements.” Complaint 14,
Regents of Univ. of Cal. v. Dep’t of Homeland Sec., No. 3:17-cv-5211 (N.D. Cal. Sept.
8, 2017), ECF No. 1. This statement could be true only if DACA, the program being
rescinded, was itself a substantive rule.
195.

The University of California plaintiffs further admit that DACA

unilaterally modified rights by conferring lawful presence:
Individuals with DACA status were “not considered to be
unlawfully present during the period in which deferred action
[was] in effect.” USCIS FAQs.
Id. at 8.
196.

In the same litigation, the State of California concedes that “DACA

Provides Numerous Benefits,” which they describe in detail:
83. DACA grantees are granted eligibility to receive employment
authorization.
84. DACA also opened the door to allow travel for DACA grantees.
For example, DACA grantees were allowed to briefly depart the
U.S. and legally return under certain circumstances, such as to
visit an ailing relative, attend funeral services for a family
member, seek medical treatment, or further educational or
employment purposes. 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(B)(i); see also Ex. E,

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USCIS, Frequently Asked Questions, DHS DACA FAQs (“DACA
FAQs”) (Apr. 25, 2017) Q57. Travel for vacation is not permitted.
85. Unlike other undocumented immigrants, DACA grantees are
not disqualified on the basis of their immigration status from
receiving certain public benefits. These include federal Social
Security, retirement, and disability benefits. See 8 U.S.C.
§§ 1611(b)(2)-(3), 1621(d). As a result, and in reliance on DHS’s
oft-stated position that DACA and similar programs are a lawful
exercise of the agency’s authority, Plaintiff States have
structured some schemes around DACA which allow, for example,
applicants to demonstrate eligibility for state programs by
producing documentation that they have been approved under
DACA. The rescission of DACA undermines such regulatory
frameworks.
86. DACA grantees are able to secure equal access to other
benefits and opportunities on which Americans depend, including
opening bank accounts, obtaining credit cards, starting
businesses, purchasing homes and cars, and conducting other
aspects of daily life that are otherwise often unavailable for
undocumented immigrants.
Complaint at 17-18, California v. U.S. Dep’t of Homeland Sec., No. 3:17-cv-5235 (N.D.
Cal. Sept. 11, 2017), ECF No. 1 (emphases added).
197.

In the New York lawsuit, the plaintiffs similarly allege that DACA

affirmatively confers benefits—that is, that DACA alters substantive rights:
218. DACA confers numerous benefits on DACA grantees.
Notably, DACA grantees are granted the right not to be arrested
or detained based solely on their immigration status during the
time period their deferred action is in effect. See Ex. 14, Question
9. . . . .
220. DACA grantees are eligible to receive certain public benefits.
These include Social Security, retirement, and disability benefits,
and, in certain states, benefits such as driver’s licenses or
unemployment insurance. See 8 U.S.C. §§ 1611(b)(2)-(3), 1621(d).
In the State of Washington, DACA holders also are eligible for
certain state financial aid programs and state-funded food
assistance. See Wash. Rev. Code § 28B.92.010; Wash. Admin.
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Code §§ 388-400-0050, 388-424-0001, 388-424-0030. In the State
of New York, DACA holders are eligible for teaching and nursing
licenses. See Comm. of Educ. Regs. §§ 59.4; 80-1.3; Ex. 78 (NYS
Board of Regents Press Release, Feb. 24, 2016).
Complaint at 41, New York, No. 1:17-cv-5228, ECF No. 1 (emphases added).
198.

Like the California plaintiffs, the New York plaintiffs have likewise

tacitly admitted that DACA was a substantive rule because it modified rights:
289. In implementing the DHS Memorandum, federal
agencies have changed the substantive criteria by which
individuals DACA grantees work, live, attend school,
obtain credit, and travel in the United States. Federal
agencies did not follow the procedures required by the APA
before taking action impacting these substantive rights.
Id. at 54.
199.

If DACA’s rescission affected substantial rights, as the challengers to

DHS’s September 2017 memorandum claim, then DACA also affected substantial
rights and was unlawful in the first place as alleged in the instant lawsuit.
X.

The Northern District of California Enjoins DHS’s Wind-Down of
DACA.
200.

On January 9, 2018, the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of

California issued an injunction in the challenge brought by the University of
California and other plaintiffs to the 2017 executive action rescinding DACA. See
Regents of Univ. of Cal. v. U.S. Dep’t of Homeland Sec., 279 F. Supp. 3d 1011 (N.D.
Cal. 2018). The Northern District of California ordered DHS, “pending final judgment
herein or other order, to maintain the DACA program on a nationwide basis on the
same terms and conditions as were in effect before the rescission on September 5,

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2017, including allowing DACA enrollees to renew their enrollments,” subject to
several exceptions. See id. at 1048-49.
201.

The Northern District of California’s order stated that “new applications

from applicants who have never before received deferred action need not be
processed.” Id. at 1048.
202.

The Northern District of California further indicated that “the advance

parole feature need not be continued for the time being for anyone,” id., and that this
injunction order “will not require advance parole,” id. at 1049.
203.

The Northern District of California concluded that DHS “may take

administrative steps to make sure fair discretion is exercised on an individualized
basis for each renewal application.” Id. at 1048.
204.

DHS also was ordered to “post reasonable public notice that it will

resume receiving DACA renewal applications and prescribe a process consistent
with” the Northern District of California’s order. Id.
205.

On April 24, 2018, the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia

issued an order in the challenge brought by the NAACP and other plaintiffs to the
2017 executive action rescinding DACA. See NAACP, 2018 WL 1920079, at *1-28.
The district court ordered that it would “vacate the Department’s September 5, 2017
decision to rescind the DACA program” and “grant plaintiffs’ motion for partial
summary judgment as to their substantive APA claim.” Id. at *28.

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206.

The district court found that the “[v]acatur of DACA’s rescission will

mean that DHS must accept and process new as well as renewal DACA applications.”
Id. at *1.
207.

The District of Columbia district court stated that it would “stay its

order of vacatur for 90 days, however, to afford DHS an opportunity to better explain
its view that DACA is unlawful.” Id. at *28.
208.

The Northern District of California’s injunction of the Executive’s 2017

decision to wind down DACA and the District of Columbia’s vacatur of the wind-down
decision forced this lawsuit to declare whether the Executive had authority to
promulgate DACA in the first place. Because DACA is still in effect, the basis upon
which Plaintiffs agreed to resolve the prior litigation has been frustrated, and
Plaintiffs therefore effectuate their previously stated plans “to challenge both the
DACA program and [any] remaining Expanded DACA permits.” Exhibit 6 at 2.
THEORIES OF RELIEF
209.

Because permits issued under the Executive’s unlawful class-based

“deferred action” programs created by the former Presidential Administration remain
in existence, Plaintiffs file this Complaint challenging those unlawful acts.
210.

DACA is unlawful for the same reasons that courts held Expanded

DACA and DAPA unlawful: The Executive does not have the unilateral power to
confer eligibility for lawful presence or work authorization on unlawfully present
aliens simply because the Executive chooses not to remove them. See Texas, 809 F.3d
at 179-81.

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211.

But for the Executive’s implementation of DACA, aliens covered by that

program would not be eligible for lawful presence, and would be removable under the
INA.
212.

But for the Executive’s implementation of DACA, aliens covered by that

program would not be eligible for work authorization.
213.

But for the Executive’s implementation of the program, many DACA

recipients would not be eligible for lawful-permanent-resident status by obtaining
advance parole.
214.

But for the Executive’s implementation of the program, many DACA

recipients would not be eligible for United States citizenship by obtaining advance
parole.
215.

Thus, Plaintiffs challenge, at a minimum, (1) the 2012 DACA memo

issued by former Secretary Napolitano, (2) the implementation of that 2012 DACA
memo, (3) the part of former Secretary Kelly’s June 2017 memo retaining the 2012
DACA memo, and (4) any DACA permits that remain in effect.
216.

On belief, no three-year Expanded DACA permits currently remain in

effect or will be issued, because such three-year permits were last issued on or before
March 2015 (over three years ago) and have not been renewed since that time because
of this Court’s February 2015 preliminary injunction of Expanded DACA and the
Executive Branch’s later June 2017 memorandum rescinding Expanded DACA.
217.

If that belief regarding Expanded DACA permits is incorrect, however,

Plaintiffs also challenge (1) any part of former Secretary Johnson’s 2014 memo

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creating Expanded DACA that may remain in effect when combined with former
Secretary Kelly’s June 2017 memo retaining a subset of previously granted Expanded
DACA permits, (2) the part of former Secretary Kelly’s June 2017 memo retaining a
subset of previously granted Expanded DACA permits, and (3) any Expanded DACA
permits that remain in effect. All arguments below concerning DACA equally apply
to Expanded DACA.
218.

DACA violates the APA’s notice-and-comment requirements, is contrary

to law under the APA, and violates the Take Care Clause.
I.

The Plaintiffs Have Standing.
219.

The Plaintiff States have standing because they have a “personal stake”

in the outcome of this litigation. Susan B. Anthony List v. Driehaus, 134 S. Ct. 2334,
2341 (2014).
220.

The Plaintiff States have suffered, and will continue to suffer, concrete

injuries that are traceable to DACA, and an injunction of DACA will redress those
injuries.
221.

DACA imposes significant costs on Plaintiff States. As the Supreme

Court has explained, States “bear[] many of the consequences of unlawful
immigration.” Arizona, 567 U.S. at 397.
222.

Only one plaintiff needs standing for an Article III case or controversy

to exist. See Texas, 809 F.3d at 151 (citing Rumsfeld v. Forum for Acad. &
Institutional Rights, Inc., 547 U.S. 47, 52 n.2 (2006)).

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223.

Once a concrete injury is shown, the magnitude of that injury is

irrelevant to the standing inquiry. See, e.g., Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. 497, 52526 (2007).
224.

Both the district court and the Fifth Circuit already have concluded that

Plaintiff States have standing to challenge the Executive’s unilateral actions
conferring class-based deferred action to grant lawful presence and work
authorizations.
225.

DACA’s conferral of lawful presence triggers eligibility for benefits—

some of which are paid for by Plaintiff States. Id. at 148-49 (explaining lawful
presence status qualifies recipients for Social Security, disability benefits, Medicare,
work authorization, unemployment benefits, and driver’s licenses).
226.

If Plaintiff States sought to change their benefits programs to prevent

DACA recipients from being eligible, Plaintiff States would be threatened with
federal preemption through the operation of DACA as it relates to their benefits
programs. The Ninth Circuit enjoined—as preempted by federal law—Arizona’s state
law that prevented the State of Arizona from issuing driver’s licenses to DACA
recipients. Ariz. Dream Act Coal. v. Brewer, 855 F.3d 957, 975 (9th Cir. 2017), cert.
denied, 138 S. Ct. 1279 (2018). The Ninth Circuit purported to rest its ruling on the
basis that the INA’s alien classifications preempted Arizona’s law, id., and that is just
another way of ruling that DACA is lawful and its lawful-presence designation is
lawful as consonant with the INA. DACA’s lawful-presence designation, in turn, is
what the Ninth Circuit held preempted Arizona’s law. After all, without the DACA

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program, DACA recipients would not be deemed lawfully present. The Plaintiff
States’ benefits programs are threatened by such alleged preemption, thus
representing an injury imposed by DACA.
227.

Other financial injuries to Plaintiff States are caused by DACA’s

granting of lawful presence and work authorization. For instance, federal work
authorization functions as a precondition for certain professional licenses in Plaintiff
States. See, e.g., 16 Tex. Admin. Code § 33.10 (requiring applicants for an alcoholic
beverage license to be “legally authorized to work in the United States”); Tex. Bd. of
Law Exam’rs, Rules Governing Admission to the Bar of Tex., R. II(a)(5)(J) (making
individuals who are “authorized to work lawfully in the United States” eligible to
apply for admission as licensed attorneys).
228.

Additionally, Plaintiff States have incurred considerable financial

injuries on education, healthcare, and law-enforcement costs caused by DACA.
229.

The Plaintiff States would not otherwise incur certain costs associated

with education, healthcare, and law enforcement but for DACA. See Texas, 86 F.
Supp. 3d at 628-30.
230.

DACA incentivizes aliens—who would otherwise be unlawfully present

and unauthorized to work without these programs—to remain in the country. Id. at
634-35.
231.

Because additional aliens will remain in Plaintiff States, those aliens

will cause Plaintiff States to incur additional financial costs—particularly education,
healthcare, and law-enforcement costs.

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232.

States are required by federal law to incur some of these costs. For

example, the Supreme Court has held that States are constitutionally obligated to
provide free education to children of unlawfully present aliens. Plyler v. Doe, 457 U.S.
202 (1982). Similarly, both Medicare and Medicaid require provision of emergency
services, regardless of lawful-presence status, as a condition of participation. See 42
U.S.C. § 1395dd; 42 C.F.R. § 440.255.
233.

As the district court found in Plaintiffs’ challenge to DAPA and

Expanded DACA, Texas pays about $9,473 per year to educate each unlawfully
present alien in its school system. See Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 630.
234.

In a single year, “Texas absorbed additional education costs of at least

$58,531,100 stemming from illegal immigration.” Id.
235.

Other expenditures are required by preexisting state law. For example,

Texas law requires local governments to provide healthcare for the indigent. See Tex.
Health & Safety Code §§ 61.001 et seq. Texas law also requires nonprofit hospitals to
provide unreimbursed care for the indigent as a condition of maintaining their
nonprofit status. See id. § 311.043. “Evidence in the record . . . shows that in 2008,
Texas incurred $716,800,000 in uncompensated medical care provided to illegal
aliens.” Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 630.
236.

Other States besides Texas have similar financial injuries caused by

DACA.

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237.

Under the Article III standing inquiry, courts do not examine whether

financial injuries incurred are “offset” by other policies reducing other expenditures.
Texas, 809 F.3d at 155-56.
238.

So any hypothetical financial gains to Plaintiff States caused by DACA

are irrelevant for determining whether Plaintiff States have standing.
239.

Moreover, Plaintiff States have parens patriae standing to protect the

quasi-sovereign interest in “the health and well-being” of their citizens. Alfred L.
Snapp & Son, Inc. v. Puerto Rico ex rel. Barez, 458 U.S. 592, 607 (1982).
240.

Specifically, Plaintiff States seek to protect their citizens’ “economic and

commercial interests” from labor-market distortion caused by the continued existence
of DACA. Id.at 609.
241.

The Plaintiff States seek the enforcement of federal law “to assure

[their] residents that they will have the full benefit of federal laws designed to address
th[e] problem” of illegal immigration and labor-market distortion. Id. at 609-10.
242.

The Plaintiff States also possess “special solicitude” in the Article III

standing analysis under Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. at 520. See Texas, 809 F.3d
at 151.
243.

The Plaintiff States do not need special solicitude to establish standing,

but Massachusetts v. EPA’s special solicitude makes standing an easy question.
244.

Just as the Supreme Court found in Massachusetts v. EPA, the federal

government here has “abdicated its responsibility” to enforce federal statutes. Texas,

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86 F. Supp. 3d at 663 (“DAPA does not represent mere inadequacy; it is complete
abdication.”).
245.

The Plaintiff States face a more certain risk of harm than the state

plaintiffs who had standing in Massachusetts v. EPA. Id. at 629; see Texas, 809 F.3d
at 159 (“Texas is entitled to the same ‘special solicitude’ as was Massachusetts, and
the causal link is even closer here.”).
246.

The Plaintiff States also seek to vindicate a procedural right—namely,

the right to be heard under the APA’s notice-and-comment procedures.
247.

Separately, Plaintiff States have standing to challenge federal agency

action that dispenses with congressional enactments when those congressional
enactments preempt state prerogatives.
248.

A State is “an institutional plaintiff.” Ariz. State Leg. v. Ariz. Indep.

Redistricting Comm’n, 135 S. Ct. 2652, 2664 (2015).
249.

An “institutional plaintiff” has standing when it suffers a mere

“institutional injury.” Id.
250.

An “institutional injury” includes when a government’s powers are

“strip[ped]” or “nullif[ied].” Id. at 2663, 2665.
251.

When a federal statute preempts state prerogatives, the State’s powers

are stripped or nullified.
252.

“When a State enters the Union, it surrenders certain sovereign

prerogatives” that become “lodged in the Federal Government.” Massachusetts v.
EPA, 549 U.S. at 519.

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253.

A State’s agreement to have its authority preempted on such sovereign

matters—for instance, determining the citizenship or lawful presence of individuals
within its borders—is premised on the understanding that Congress’s enactments
serve to “protect” the States. Id.
254.

Due to the preemption of their sovereign prerogatives, States also have

a “quasi-sovereign,” if not purely sovereign, interest in the enforcement of federal
laws that preempt surrendered prerogatives. Id. at 520.
255.

When the Executive Branch “has abdicated its responsibility under

[federal statutes],” it negates the basis on which the States agreed to allow federal
preemption of their sovereign prerogatives. Id. at 505.
256.

States therefore also have “abdication standing” to challenge federal

Executive agency action that dispenses with statutes passed by Congress when those
statutes preempt state prerogatives. Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 636-43.
257.
II.

The Plaintiff States thus have standing to maintain all their claims.

This Action Is Timely.
258.

The Plaintiff States have commenced this action within the applicable

limitations periods.
259.

“Unless another statute provides otherwise, civil claims against the

United States—including those brought pursuant to the APA—are subject to the
statute of limitations contained in 28 U.S.C. § 2401.” Mendoza v. Perez, 754 F.3d 1002,
1018 (D.C. Cir. 2014) (addressing, inter alia, APA notice-and-comment claim).

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260.

Under this provision, a party must commence an action within six years

of the right of action accruing. 28 U.S.C. § 2401(a).
261.

Congress has not adopted a special statute of limitations for the type of

claims Plaintiff States bring herein.
262.

The Plaintiff States commenced this action within six years of the

promulgation of DACA.
263.

The Plaintiff States commenced this action within six years of the

implementation of DACA.
264.

The Plaintiff States’ request for injunctive relief preventing the

Executive from renewing or issuing any new DACA permits in the future is not barred
by any statute of limitations.
III.

The Plaintiff States’ Interests Are At Least Arguably Within the Zone
of Interests Protected by Immigration Statutes and the APA.
265.

The Plaintiff States’ interests are at least arguably within the zone of

interests protected by immigration statutes. See Texas, 809 F.3d at 163.
266.

The Plaintiff States’ interests are arguably within the zone of interests

protected by the APA.
IV.

DACA Is Reviewable Agency Actions.
267.

The creation of DACA—and its conferral of lawful presence and work

authorization—is affirmative agency action, not mere enforcement-discretion
inaction. Id. at 166-67.
268.

This lawsuit does not challenge the DHS Secretary’s separate February

20, 2017 memorandum setting immigration enforcement priorities. Memorandum
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from John Kelly, Secretary, DHS, to Kevin McAleenan, Acting Comm’r, CBP, et al,
Enforcement of the Immigration Laws to Serve the National Interest (Feb. 20, 2017),
https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/17_0220_S1_Enforcement-ofthe-Immigration-Laws-to-Serve-the-National-Interest.pdf.
269.

This lawsuit does not challenge the Executive’s “discretion to abandon”

the “initiation or prosecution of various stages in the deportation process.” Reno v.
Am.-Arab Anti-Discrimination Comm., 525 U.S. 471, 483 (1999).
270.

Deferred action under DACA “is much more than nonenforcement: It

would affirmatively confer ‘lawful presence’ and associated benefits on a class of
unlawfully present aliens.” Texas, 809 F.3d at 166.
271.

“Declining to prosecute does not transform presence deemed unlawful

by Congress into lawful presence and confer eligibility for otherwise unavailable
benefits based on that change.” Id. at 167.
272.

In contrast to enforcement discretion, DACA confers eligibility for a

change in immigration classification that triggers eligibility for attendant benefits.
273.

The Defendants unilaterally deem DACA recipients “lawfully present.”

274.

The congressional-created classification of “lawful presence” confers

eligibility for Social Security, Medicare, the Earned Income Tax Credit, a driver’s
license, and a host of other benefits.
275.

DACA also unilaterally confers the ability to obtain work authorization.

276.

DACA has even provided some recipients with United States citizenship

or a pathway to citizenship.

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277.

Justice Scalia correctly explained that DACA cannot be justified as mere

nonenforcement discretion: “the considerable administrative cost of conducting as
many as 1.4 million background checks, and ruling on the biennial requests for
dispensation that the nonenforcement program envisions, will necessarily
be deducted from immigration enforcement.” Arizona, 567 U.S. at 435 (Scalia, J.,
concurring in part and dissenting in part) (emphasis in original).
278.

The Defendants cannot identify any “clear and convincing evidence of

legislative intention to preclude review” of DACA. Japan Whaling Ass’n v. Am.
Cetacean Soc’y, 478 U.S. 221, 230 n.4 (1986).
279.

The Defendants have indicated that “DHS has absolute discretion to

revoke deferred action unilaterally, without notice or process.” Pet. Br. at 5, supra,
2016 WL 836758, at *5.
280.

“Revocability, however, is not the touchstone for whether agency . . .

action is reviewable.” Texas, 809 F.3d at 167.
V.

DACA Is Unlawful.
A.

DACA Is Unlawful Because It Was Issued Without the Required
APA Notice-and-Comment Procedure.

281.

DACA is a substantive rule, not exempt from the Administrative

Procedure Act’s notice-and-comment requirements as an interpretive rule, as a
general statement of policy, or as a rule of agency organization, procedure, or practice,
5 U.S.C. § 553(b)(A). See Texas, 809 F.3d at 171-78.
282.

No exceptions to the APA’s notice-and-comment requirements are

applicable to DACA.
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283.

DACA, Expanded DACA, and DAPA are some of the largest immigration

policy changes in our Nation’s history.
284.

The APA requires this Court to hold unlawful and set aside any agency

action taken “without observance of procedure required by law.” 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(D).
285.

DHS is an “agency” under the APA. Id. § 551(1).

286.

The memorandum creating (or continuing) DACA is a “rule” under the

APA. Id. § 551(4).
287.

The DACA memorandum required notice-and-comment procedure

because it is a binding rule.
288.

DACA required notice-and-comment procedure because it modifies

substantive rights and interests, as it confers on recipients a legal status (lawful
presence) and eligibility for attendant benefits. See Texas, 809 F.3d at 176.
289.

Additionally, DACA required notice-and-comment procedure because it

does not genuinely leave the agency and its decisionmaker free to exercise discretion.
290.

As the district court found in the DAPA lawsuit, “[n]othing about DAPA

‘genuinely leaves the agency and its [employees] free to exercise discretion.’” Id. at
171-72 & n.127 (quoting Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 670 (emphasis and second alteration
in district court opinion)).
291.

In the DAPA lawsuit, the district court’s finding regarding the lack of

genuine discretion afforded to USCIS and its employees under DAPA “was partly
informed by analysis of the implementation of DACA, the precursor to DAPA.” Id. at
172 & n.128 (citing Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 669-70).

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292.

“Like the DAPA Memo, the DACA Memo instructed agencies to review

applications on a case-by-case basis and exercise discretion, but the district court
found that those statements were ‘merely pretext’ . . . .” Id. at 172 & n.129 (quoting
Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 669 n.101).
293.

As the Fifth Circuit recognized, “only about 5% of the 723,000 [DACA]

applications accepted for evaluation [through the end of 2014] had been denied.” Id.
at 172 & n.130 (citing Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 609).
294.

As the Fifth Circuit explained, “‘[d]espite a request by the [district]

[c]ourt, the [g]overnment’s counsel did not provide the number, if any, of requests
that were denied [for discretionary reasons] even though the applicant met the DACA
criteria.’” Id. at 172 & n.131 (quoting Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 609 (alterations in Fifth
Circuit opinion)).
295.

The district court’s “finding of pretext was also based on a declaration

by Kenneth Palinkas, the president of the union representing the USCIS employees
processing the DACA applications, that ‘DHS management has taken multiple steps
to ensure that DACA applications are simply rubberstamped if the applicants meet
the necessary criteria.’” Id. at 172-73 & n.132 (quoting Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 60910).
296.

The district court’s “finding of pretext was also based on . . . DACA’s

Operating Procedures, which ‘contain[] nearly 150 pages of specific instructions for
granting or denying deferred action.’” Id. at 172-73 & n.133 (quoting Texas, 86 F.
Supp. 3d at 669 (alteration in Fifth Circuit opinion)).

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297.

DACA “[d]enials are recorded in a ‘check the box’ standardized form, for

which USCIS personnel are provided templates.” Id. at 175 (quoting Texas, 86 F.
Supp. 3d at 669 (alteration in Fifth Circuit opinion)).
298.

“Certain denials of [DACA] must be sent to a supervisor for approval[,

and] there is no option for granting [DACA] to an individual who does not meet each
criterion.” Id. (quoting Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 669 (alteration in Fifth Circuit
opinion)).
299.

“‘[R]outing [DACA] applications through service centers instead of field

offices . . . created an application process that bypasses traditional in-person
investigatory interviews with trained USCIS adjudications officers’ and ‘prevents
officers from conducting case-by-case investigations, undermines officers’ abilities to
detect fraud and national-security risks, and ensures that applications will be rubberstamped.’” Id. (quoting Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 609-10 (alteration and omission in
Fifth Circuit op.)); see Decl. of Kenneth Palinkas ¶ 10, Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d 591 (No.
1:14-cv-254), ECF No. 64-42.
300.

DACA relief confers a stamp of approval from the government and

encodes a substantive value judgment. See Texas, 809 F.3d at 176-77.
301.

DACA does not clearly and directly relate to “public benefits” as that

term is used in 5 U.S.C. § 553(a)(2), because the agency administering DACA (USCIS)
is not an agency managing benefit programs, much less the kind of public benefit that
has been recognized under § 553(a)(2). See Texas, 809 F.3d at 178.

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302.

Although OLC cautioned the Executive that it was “critical” to DACA’s

legality that the Executive Branch evaluate every application on a case-by-case basis,
Exhibit 4 at 18 n.8, the President and DHS ignored that advice by granting deferred
action mechanically to all applicants who satisfy the threshold criteria specified in
the DACA memo.
303.

DHS officials who implement the DACA program exercise, in practice,

effectively no discretion to deny DACA to applicants who meet the eligibility criteria
in the DACA memo and the administrative application requirements, such as a
background check and application fee.
B.

DACA Is Contrary to Law, Because It Violates Congressional
Statutes.

304.

DACA is contrary to law because it is “not authorized by statute,” Texas,

809 F.3d at 184, and is “foreclosed by Congress’s careful plan,” id. at 186.
305.

The APA requires this Court to hold unlawful and set aside any agency

action that is “(A) arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, or otherwise not in
accordance with law; (B) contrary to constitutional right, power, privilege, or
immunity; [or] (C) in excess of statutory jurisdiction, authority, or limitations, or
short of statutory right.” 5 U.S.C. § 706(2).
306.

“In specific and detailed provisions, the INA expressly and carefully

provides legal designations allowing defined classes of aliens to be lawfully present.”
Texas, 809 F.3d at 179.
307.

“Entirely absent from those specific classes is the group of . . . illegal

aliens who would be eligible for lawful presence under” DACA. Id.
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308.

“The INA also specifies classes of aliens eligible and ineligible for work

authorization.” Id. at 180-81 (footnotes omitted).
309.

Federal statutes defining which aliens are eligible for work

authorization make “no mention of the class of persons whom” DACA “would make
eligible for work authorization.” Id. at 181.
310.

“[T]he INA flatly does not permit the reclassification of millions of illegal

aliens as lawfully present and thereby make them eligible for a host of federal and
state benefits, including work authorization.” Id. at 184.
311.

“[H]istorical practice . . . ‘does not, by itself, create power.’” Id. at 184 &

n.193 (quoting Medellin v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491, 532 (2008)).
312.

“[I]n any event, previous deferred-action programs are not analogous to

[DACA].” Id. at 184.
313.

“[M]any of the previous programs were bridges from one legal status to

another, whereas [DACA] awards lawful presence to persons who have never had a
legal status and may never receive one.” Id. (footnotes omitted).
314.

DACA has even provided some recipients with United States citizenship

or a pathway to citizenship—without any statutory authorization to do so from
Congress.
C.

DACA Violates the Take Care Clause.

315.

DACA violates the Take Care Clause because it dispenses with certain

immigration statutes by declaring as lawful conduct that Congress established as
unlawful.

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316.

DACA violates the Take Care Clause because it dispenses with certain

immigration statutes by granting United States citizenship or a pathway to
citizenship to aliens who would otherwise be unlawfully present but for DACA.
317.

The Take Care Clause has its roots in the dispute between Parliament

and King James II, who was overthrown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
Parliament was infuriated at King James’s use of his purported power to suspend or
dispense with Parliament’s laws. Zachary Price, Enforcement Discretion and
Executive Duty, 67 Vand. L. Rev. 671, 676, 690-91 (2014). The subsequent monarchs,
William and Mary, agreed to the English Bill of Rights, which stripped the monarchy
of all suspending and dispensing authority. See English Bill of Rights of 1689, art. 1.
318.

The Framers of the U.S. Constitution unanimously rejected a proposal

to grant dispensing powers to the President.
319.

The Supreme Court has held that the Take Care Clause does not grant

the President a power to dispense with statutes: “To contend that the obligation
imposed on the President to see the laws faithfully executed, implies a power to forbid
their execution, is a novel construction of the [C]onstitution, and entirely
inadmissible.” Kendall v. United States ex rel. Stokes, 37 U.S. 524, 613 (1838). Any
other conclusion would “vest[] in the President a dispensing power.” Id.
320.

DACA dispenses with certain immigration statutes.

321.

Just as King James attempted to make unlawful office-holding lawful,

Price, supra, at 691, the Executive through DACA, Expanded DACA, and DAPA
sought to make unlawful presence lawful.

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322.

Even worse than that, after the Executive made unlawful presence

lawful through DACA, the Executive then used that lawful-presence dispensation to
affirmatively confer United States citizenship or a pathway to citizenship on some
DACA recipients.
323.

As Justice Scalia correctly noted, DACA is a program that involves

“biennial requests for dispensation” from immigration statutes. Arizona, 567 U.S. at
435 (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (emphasis added).
324.

OLC recognized that class-based deferred-action programs like DACA

“raise particular concerns about whether immigration officials have undertaken to
substantively change” immigration statutes, Exhibit 4 at 22, and “effectively rewrite
the laws to match the Executive’s policy preferences,” id. at 24.
325.

DACA is unlawful even under the four-part test established by the OLC

Memo under the Obama Administration delineating limitations imposed by “the
nature of the Take Care duty.” Id. at 6-7.
326.

First, OLC stated that a class-based deferred-action program must

reflect the agency’s expert judgment about resource allocation, id. at 6, and must not
confer legal status, id. at 20-21.
327.

But DACA deems unlawful presence lawful—a fact never mentioned by

the OLC Memo.
328.

DACA has even provided some recipients with United States citizenship

or a pathway to citizenship—a fact never mentioned by the OLC Memo.

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329.

DACA is a programmatic decision to confer benefits on hundreds of

thousands of aliens.
330.

Second, OLC stated that a class-based deferred-action program must be

“consonant with, rather than contrary to, the congressional policy underlying the
[relevant] statutes.” Id. at 6.
331.

DACA is “incompatible with the express or implied will of Congress.”

Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, 637 (1952) (Jackson, J.,
concurring).
332.

DACA violates explicit and implicit congressional objectives.

333.

Third, OLC stated that a class-based deferred-action program cannot be

an “[a]bdication of the duties assigned to the agency by statute.” Exhibit 4 at 7.
334.

But DACA is an “abdication” of immigration statutes enumerating in

careful detail which aliens may be lawfully present and obtain work authorization.
Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d at 663.
335.

DACA also is an “abdication” of immigration statutes enumerating in

careful detail which aliens may obtain United States citizenship or a pathway to
citizenship. Id.
336.

Fourth, OLC stated that a class-based deferred-action program must

allow for “case-by-case” discretion. Exhibit 4 at 7.
337.

As explained above, see supra ¶¶ 289-303, DACA does not allow for case-

by-case discretion.

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VI.

The Court Should Declare that DACA Is Unlawful and Enjoin the
Defendants Nationwide from Issuing or Renewing DACA Permits.
338.

For the reasons explained above, the Court should enter a declaratory

judgment that DACA is unlawful.
339.

While the Court would have the power to enter an injunction

immediately rescinding all DACA permits that confer lawful presence and work
authorization, Plaintiff States are amenable to an injunction that prospectively
enjoins Defendants in the future from renewing or issuing any new DACA permits
that confer lawful presence and work authorization, but does not require the
Executive to immediately rescind any existing DACA permits that confer lawful
presence or work authorization. Such an injunction would effectively phase out the
DACA program within two years.
340.

Such an injunction would account for any alleged reliance interests that

aliens claim in DACA permits already received. Any such reliance interest, however,
could not possibly extend beyond the existing two-year terms of those permits. The
memorandum announcing DACA itself explicitly stated that “DHS cannot provide
any assurance that relief will be granted.” Exhibit 1 at 2.
341.

An injunction prohibiting the Executive from issuing or renewing DACA

permits should apply to Defendants wherever they may act.
342.

Both the Constitution and Congress have directed that the Nation needs

a uniform, nationwide immigration policy. See Texas, 809 F.3d at 187-88.
343.

Additionally, the Court should grant any and all other relief to which

Plaintiff States may be entitled.
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VII.

The Deferred-Action Work-Authorization Regulation Is Invalid as
Applied to DACA and Expanded DACA Recipients.
344.

An executive regulation declares that “an alien who has been granted

deferred action” can obtain employment authorization from the federal government.
8 C.F.R. § 274a.12(c)(14).
345.

Defendants have previously asserted that 8 C.F.R. § 274a.12(c)(14)

authorizes the federal government to grant work authorization to recipients of DAPA
and Expanded DACA. See Defs.’ Mem. P. & A. in Opp’n to Pls.’ Mot. for Prelim. Inj.
7-8, Texas, 86 F. Supp. 3d 591 (No. 1:14-cv-254), ECF No. 38.
346.

There is no statutory authorization for the regulation to be applied in

this manner. Although 8 C.F.R. § 274a.12(c)(14) may be valid as applied to the four,
narrow types of deferred action authorized by statute, it is not valid as applied to
recipients of DACA, Expanded DACA, or DAPA—which are not statutorily
authorized.
VIII. The Federal Benefits Triggered by Lawful Presence Cannot Be Validly
Extended to DACA Recipients.
347.

The classification of lawful presence is a requirement for myriad federal

benefits, including Social Security, Medicare, and PRWORA-restricted benefits. See
supra ¶¶ 38-40.
348.

Conversely, time during which an alien lacks the classification of lawful

presence counts towards lengths of time that trigger a reentry bar. See supra ¶ 41.
349.

DACA confers lawful presence on individuals whose presence in this

country is not lawful under the Nation’s immigration laws.

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350.

The statutory provisions conferring eligibility for benefits based on

lawful presence cannot be validly applied to DACA recipients.
FIRST CAUSE OF ACTION
Violation of the Take Care Clause
351.

The allegations in paragraphs 1-351 are reincorporated herein.

352.

Defendants’ actions here in creating and implementing DACA violate

the President’s constitutional duty to “take Care that the Laws be faithfully
executed.” U.S. Const. art. II, § 3. To the extent Expanded DACA permits remain in
effect, they also violate the same duty.
SECOND CAUSE OF ACTION
Violation of the APA’s Procedural Requirements, 5 U.S.C. § 553
353.

The allegations in paragraphs 1-353 are reincorporated herein.

354.

Defendants have violated the APA by promulgating, implementing, and

relying upon the DACA program without using the required APA notice-andcomment procedure. To the extend Expanded DACA permits remain in effect, they
violate the same procedural law.
THIRD CAUSE OF ACTION
Violation of the APA’s Substantive Requirements, 5 U.S.C. § 706
355.

The allegations in paragraphs 1-355 are reincorporated herein.

356.

Defendants have acted contrary to law and have violated 5 U.S.C. § 706

by creating and implementing DACA. To the extent Expanded DACA permits remain
in effect, they violate the same substantive law.

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PRAYER FOR RELIEF
Underlying DACA is a dangerously broad conception of Executive power—one
that if left unchecked, could allow future Executives to dismantle other duly enacted
laws. The Court must not allow that to occur. Plaintiff States respectfully request
that the Court issue the following relief regarding DACA (and Expanded DACA, to
the extent any permits remain in effect):
A.

An order enjoining Defendants from issuing or renewing any DACA
permits in the future;

B.

A declaratory judgment that DACA violates the Take Care Clause;

C.

A declaratory judgment that DACA is procedurally unlawful under the
APA;

D.

A declaratory judgment that DACA is substantively unlawful under the
APA; and

E.

Any and all other relief to which Plaintiff States may be entitled.

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Respectfully submitted.
STEVE MARSHALL
Attorney General of Alabama

KEN PAXTON
Attorney General of Texas

LESLIE RUTLEDGE
Attorney General of Arkansas

JEFFREY C. MATEER
First Assistant Attorney General

JEFF LANDRY
Attorney General of Louisiana

ALAN WILSON
Attorney General of South Carolina

BRANTLEY STARR
Deputy First Assistant Attorney General
Tx. State Bar No. 24046904
Southern District of Texas No. 2972033
Tel.: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
[e-mail]
P.O. Box 12548
Austin, Texas 78711-2548

PATRICK MORRISEY
Attorney General of West Virginia

JAMES E. DAVIS
Deputy Attorney General for Civil Litigation

/s/ Todd Lawrence Disher
TODD LAWRENCE DISHER
Attorney-in-Charge
Special Counsel for Civil Litigation
Tx. State Bar No. 24081854
Southern District of Texas No. 2985472
Tel.: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
[e-mail]
P.O. Box 12548
Austin, Texas 78711-2548

DOUGLAS J. PETERSON
Attorney General of Nebraska

ADAM ARTHUR BIGGS
Special Counsel for Civil Litigation
Tx. State Bar No. 24077727
Southern District of Texas No. 2964087
Tel.: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
[e-mail]
P.O. Box 12548
Austin, Texas 78711-2548

COUNSEL FOR PLAINTIFF STATES
Dated this 1st day of May, 2018.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Exhibit Document
1.

June 15, 2012, Memo from Janet Napolitano, former Secretary of
Homeland Security, titled “Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion with
Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United States as Children”
(“DACA Memo”)

2.

U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Number of Form I-821D,
Consideration of Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals, Fiscal Year
2012-2017

3.

November 20, 2014, Memo from Jeh Charles Johnson, former Secretary
of Homeland Security, titled “Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion with
Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United States as Children and
with Respect to Certain Individuals Who Are the Parents of U.S.
Citizens or Permanent Residents” (“DAPA Memo”)

4.

U.S. Department of Justice’s November 19, 2014, Memorandum
Opinion for the Secretary of Homeland Security and the Counsel to the
President (“OLC Memo”)

5.

June 15, 2017, Memo from former Secretary of U.S. Department of
Homeland Security John F. Kelly titled “Rescission of November 20,
2014 Memorandum Providing for Deferred Action for Parents of
Americans and Lawful Permanent Residents” (“DAPA Rescission
Memo”)

6.

June 29, 2017, Letter from Texas Attorney General Ken Paxton and ten
other states to the U.S. Attorney General, urging the Trump
Administration to phase out DACA

7.

September 5, 2017, Memorandum from Elaine C. Duke, Acting
Secretary of U. S. Department of Homeland Security Titled “Rescission
of the June 15, 2012 Memorandum Entitled “Exercising Prosecutorial
Discretion with Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United States
as Children” (“DACA Rescission Memo”)

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Exhibit 1

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Exhibit 2

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Exhibit 3

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Exhibit 4

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The Department of Homeland Security’s Authority to
Prioritize Removal of Certain Aliens Unlawfully Present
in the United States and to Defer Removal of Others
The Department of Homeland Security’s proposed policy to prioritize the removal of certain aliens
unlawfully present in the United States would be a permissible exercise of DHS’s discretion to
enforce the immigration laws.
The Department of Homeland Security’s proposed deferred action program for parents of U.S. citizens
and legal permanent residents would also be a permissible exercise of DHS’s discretion to enforce
the immigration laws.
The Department of Homeland Security’s proposed deferred action program for parents of recipients of
deferred action under the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program would not be a permissible exercise of DHS’s enforcement discretion.

November 19, 2014

MEMORANDUM OPINION FOR THE SECRETARY OF HOMELAND SECURITY
AND THE COUNSEL TO THE PRESIDENT
You have asked two questions concerning the scope of the Department of
Homeland Security’s discretion to enforce the immigration laws. First, you have
asked whether, in light of the limited resources available to the Department
(“DHS”) to remove aliens unlawfully present in the United States, it would be
legally permissible for the Department to implement a policy prioritizing the
removal of certain categories of aliens over others. DHS has explained that
although there are approximately 11.3 million undocumented aliens in the country,
it has the resources to remove fewer than 400,000 such aliens each year. DHS’s
proposed policy would prioritize the removal of aliens who present threats to
national security, public safety, or border security. Under the proposed policy,
DHS officials could remove an alien who did not fall into one of these categories
provided that an Immigration and Customs Enforcement (“ICE”) Field Office
Director determined that “removing such an alien would serve an important
federal interest.” Draft Memorandum for Thomas S. Winkowski, Acting Director,
ICE, et al., from Jeh Charles Johnson, Secretary of Homeland Security, Re:
Policies for the Apprehension, Detention, and Removal of Undocumented
Immigrants at 5 (Nov. 17, 2014) (“Johnson Prioritization Memorandum”).
Second, you have asked whether it would be permissible for DHS to extend
deferred action, a form of temporary administrative relief from removal, to certain
aliens who are the parents of children who are present in the United States.
Specifically, DHS has proposed to implement a program under which an alien
could apply for, and would be eligible to receive, deferred action if he or she is not
a DHS removal priority under the policy described above; has continuously
resided in the United States since before January 1, 2010; has a child who is either
a U.S. citizen or a lawful permanent resident; is physically present in the United

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States both when DHS announces its program and at the time of application for
deferred action; and presents “no other factors that, in the exercise of discretion,
make[] the grant of deferred action inappropriate.” Draft Memorandum for Leon
Rodriguez, Director, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, et al., from Jeh
Charles Johnson, Secretary of Homeland Security, Re: Exercising Prosecutorial
Discretion with Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United States as Children
and Others at 4 (Nov. 17, 2014) (“Johnson Deferred Action Memorandum”). You
have also asked whether DHS could implement a similar program for parents of
individuals who have received deferred action under the Deferred Action for
Childhood Arrivals (“DACA”) program.
As has historically been true of deferred action, these proposed deferred action
programs would not “legalize” any aliens who are unlawfully present in the United
States: Deferred action does not confer any lawful immigration status, nor does it
provide a path to obtaining permanent residence or citizenship. Grants of deferred
action under the proposed programs would, rather, represent DHS’s decision not
to seek an alien’s removal for a prescribed period of time. See generally Reno v.
Am.-Arab Anti-Discrim. Comm., 525 U.S. 471, 483–84 (1999) (describing
deferred action). Under decades-old regulations promulgated pursuant to authority
delegated by Congress, see 8 U.S.C. §§ 1103(a)(3), 1324a(h)(3), aliens who are
granted deferred action—like certain other categories of aliens who do not have
lawful immigration status, such as asylum applicants—may apply for authorization to work in the United States in certain circumstances, 8 C.F.R.
§ 274a.12(c)(14) (providing that deferred action recipients may apply for work
authorization if they can show an “economic necessity for employment”); see also
8 C.F.R. § 109.1(b)(7) (1982). Under DHS policy guidance, a grant of deferred
action also suspends an alien’s accrual of unlawful presence for purposes of
8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(B)(i) and (a)(9)(C)(i)(I), provisions that restrict the
admission of aliens who have departed the United States after having been
unlawfully present for specified periods of time. A grant of deferred action under
the proposed programs would remain in effect for three years, subject to renewal,
and could be terminated at any time at DHS’s discretion. See Johnson Deferred
Action Memorandum at 2, 5.
For the reasons discussed below, we conclude that DHS’s proposed prioritization policy and its proposed deferred action program for parents of U.S. citizens
and lawful permanent residents would be permissible exercises of DHS’s discretion to enforce the immigration laws. We further conclude that, as it has been
described to us, the proposed deferred action program for parents of DACA
recipients would not be a permissible exercise of enforcement discretion.
I.
We first address DHS’s authority to prioritize the removal of certain categories
of aliens over others. We begin by discussing some of the sources and limits of

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DHS’s enforcement discretion under the immigration laws, and then analyze
DHS’s proposed prioritization policy in light of these considerations.
A.
DHS’s authority to remove aliens from the United States rests on the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (“INA”), as amended, 8 U.S.C. §§ 1101 et seq. In
the INA, Congress established a comprehensive scheme governing immigration
and naturalization. The INA specifies certain categories of aliens who are
inadmissible to the United States. See 8 U.S.C. § 1182. It also specifies “which
aliens may be removed from the United States and the procedures for doing so.”
Arizona v. United States, 132 S. Ct. 2492, 2499 (2012). “Aliens may be removed if
they were inadmissible at the time of entry, have been convicted of certain crimes,
or meet other criteria set by federal law.” Id. (citing 8 U.S.C. § 1227); see 8 U.S.C.
§ 1227(a) (providing that “[a]ny alien . . . in and admitted to the United States
shall, upon the order of the Attorney General, be removed if the alien” falls within
one or more classes of deportable aliens); see also 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a) (listing
classes of aliens ineligible to receive visas or be admitted to the United States).
Removal proceedings ordinarily take place in federal immigration courts administered by the Executive Office for Immigration Review, a component of the
Department of Justice. See id. § 1229a (governing removal proceedings); see also
id. §§ 1225(b)(1)(A), 1228(b) (setting out expedited removal procedures for
certain arriving aliens and certain aliens convicted of aggravated felonies).
Before 2003, the Department of Justice, through the Immigration and Naturalization Service (“INS”), was also responsible for providing immigration-related
administrative services and generally enforcing the immigration laws. In the
Homeland Security Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-296, 116 Stat. 2135, Congress
transferred most of these functions to DHS, giving it primary responsibility both
for initiating removal proceedings and for carrying out final orders of removal. See
6 U.S.C. §§ 101 et seq.; see also Clark v. Martinez, 543 U.S. 371, 374 n.1 (2005)
(noting that the immigration authorities previously exercised by the Attorney
General and INS “now reside” in the Secretary of Homeland Security and DHS).
The Act divided INS’s functions among three different agencies within DHS: U.S.
Citizenship and Immigration Services (“USCIS”), which oversees legal immigration into the United States and provides immigration and naturalization services to
aliens; ICE, which enforces federal laws governing customs, trade, and immigration; and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (“CBP”), which monitors and
secures the nation’s borders and ports of entry. See Pub. L. No. 107-296, §§ 403,
442, 451, 471, 116 Stat. 2135, 2178, 2193, 2195, 2205; see also Name Change
From the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services to U.S. Citizenship and
Immigration Services, 69 Fed. Reg. 60938, 60938 (Oct. 13, 2004); Name Change
of Two DHS Components, 75 Fed. Reg. 12445, 12445 (Mar. 16, 2010). The
Secretary of Homeland Security is thus now “charged with the administration and

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enforcement of [the INA] and all other laws relating to the immigration and
naturalization of aliens.” 8 U.S.C. § 1103(a)(1).
As a general rule, when Congress vests enforcement authority in an executive
agency, that agency has the discretion to decide whether a particular violation of
the law warrants prosecution or other enforcement action. This discretion is rooted
in the President’s constitutional duty to “take Care that the Laws be faithfully
executed,” U.S. Const. art. II, § 3, and it reflects a recognition that the “faithful[]”
execution of the law does not necessarily entail “act[ing] against each technical
violation of the statute” that an agency is charged with enforcing. Heckler v.
Chaney, 470 U.S. 821, 831 (1985). Rather, as the Supreme Court explained in
Chaney, the decision whether to initiate enforcement proceedings is a complex
judgment that calls on the agency to “balanc[e] . . . a number of factors which are
peculiarly within its expertise.” Id. These factors include “whether agency
resources are best spent on this violation or another, whether the agency is likely
to succeed if it acts, whether the particular enforcement action requested best fits
the agency’s overall policies, and . . . whether the agency has enough resources to
undertake the action at all.” Id. at 831; cf. United States v. Armstrong, 517 U.S.
456, 465 (1996) (recognizing that exercises of prosecutorial discretion in criminal
cases involve consideration of “‘[s]uch factors as the strength of the case, the
prosecution’s general deterrence value, the Government’s enforcement priorities,
and the case’s relationship to the Government’s overall enforcement plan’”
(quoting Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598, 607 (1985))). In Chaney, the Court
considered and rejected a challenge to the Food and Drug Administration’s refusal
to initiate enforcement proceedings with respect to alleged violations of the
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, concluding that an agency’s decision not
to initiate enforcement proceedings is presumptively immune from judicial review.
See 470 U.S. at 832. The Court explained that, while Congress may “provide[]
guidelines for the agency to follow in exercising its enforcement powers,” in the
absence of such “legislative direction,” an agency’s non-enforcement determination is, much like a prosecutor’s decision not to indict, a “special province of the
Executive.” Id. at 832–33.
The principles of enforcement discretion discussed in Chaney apply with particular force in the context of immigration. Congress enacted the INA against a
background understanding that immigration is “a field where flexibility and the
adaptation of the congressional policy to infinitely variable conditions constitute
the essence of the program.” United States ex rel. Knauff v. Shaughnessy, 338 U.S.
537, 543 (1950) (internal quotation marks omitted). Consistent with this understanding, the INA vested the Attorney General (now the Secretary of Homeland
Security) with broad authority to “establish such regulations; . . . issue such
instructions; and perform such other acts as he deems necessary for carrying out
his authority” under the statute. 8 U.S.C. § 1103(a)(3). Years later, when Congress
created the Department of Homeland Security, it expressly charged DHS with
responsibility for “[e]stablishing national immigration enforcement policies and

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priorities.” Homeland Security Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-296, § 402(5), 116
Stat. 2135, 2178 (codified at 6 U.S.C. § 202(5)).
With respect to removal decisions in particular, the Supreme Court has recognized that “the broad discretion exercised by immigration officials” is a “principal
feature of the removal system” under the INA. Arizona, 132 S. Ct. at 2499. The
INA expressly authorizes immigration officials to grant certain forms of discretionary relief from removal for aliens, including parole, 8 U.S.C. § 1182(d)(5)(A);
asylum, id. § 1158(b)(1)(A); and cancellation of removal, id. § 1229b. But in
addition to administering these statutory forms of relief, “[f]ederal officials, as an
initial matter, must decide whether it makes sense to pursue removal at all.”
Arizona, 132 S. Ct. at 2499. And, as the Court has explained, “[a]t each stage” of
the removal process—“commenc[ing] proceedings, adjudicat[ing] cases, [and]
execut[ing] removal orders”—immigration officials have “discretion to abandon
the endeavor.” Am.-Arab Anti-Discrim. Comm., 525 U.S. at 483 (quoting 8 U.S.C.
§ 1252(g) (alterations in original)). Deciding whether to pursue removal at each of
these stages implicates a wide range of considerations. As the Court observed in
Arizona:
Discretion in the enforcement of immigration law embraces immediate human concerns. Unauthorized workers trying to support their
families, for example, likely pose less danger than alien smugglers or
aliens who commit a serious crime. The equities of an individual
case may turn on many factors, including whether the alien has children born in the United States, long ties to the community, or a record of distinguished military service. Some discretionary decisions
involve policy choices that bear on this Nation’s international relations. . . . The foreign state may be mired in civil war, complicit in
political persecution, or enduring conditions that create a real risk
that the alien or his family will be harmed upon return. The dynamic
nature of relations with other countries requires the Executive
Branch to ensure that enforcement policies are consistent with this
Nation’s foreign policy with respect to these and other realities.
132 S. Ct. at 2499.
Immigration officials’ discretion in enforcing the laws is not, however, unlimited. Limits on enforcement discretion are both implicit in, and fundamental to, the
Constitution’s allocation of governmental powers between the two political
branches. See, e.g., Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, 587–
88 (1952). These limits, however, are not clearly defined. The open-ended nature
of the inquiry under the Take Care Clause—whether a particular exercise of
discretion is “faithful[]” to the law enacted by Congress—does not lend itself
easily to the application of set formulas or bright-line rules. And because the
exercise of enforcement discretion generally is not subject to judicial review, see

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Chaney, 470 U.S. at 831–33, neither the Supreme Court nor the lower federal
courts have squarely addressed its constitutional bounds. Rather, the political
branches have addressed the proper allocation of enforcement authority through
the political process. As the Court noted in Chaney, Congress “may limit an
agency’s exercise of enforcement power if it wishes, either by setting substantive
priorities, or by otherwise circumscribing an agency’s power to discriminate
among issues or cases it will pursue.” Id. at 833. The history of immigration policy
illustrates this principle: Since the INA was enacted, the Executive Branch has on
numerous occasions exercised discretion to extend various forms of immigration
relief to categories of aliens for humanitarian, foreign policy, and other reasons.
When Congress has been dissatisfied with Executive action, it has responded, as
Chaney suggests, by enacting legislation to limit the Executive’s discretion in
enforcing the immigration laws.1
Nonetheless, the nature of the Take Care duty does point to at least four general
(and closely related) principles governing the permissible scope of enforcement
discretion that we believe are particularly relevant here. First, enforcement
decisions should reflect “factors which are peculiarly within [the enforcing
agency’s] expertise.” Chaney, 470 U.S. at 831. Those factors may include
considerations related to agency resources, such as “whether the agency has
enough resources to undertake the action,” or “whether agency resources are best
spent on this violation or another.” Id. Other relevant considerations may include
“the proper ordering of [the agency’s] priorities,” id. at 832, and the agency’s
assessment of “whether the particular enforcement action [at issue] best fits the
agency’s overall policies,” id. at 831.
Second, the Executive cannot, under the guise of exercising enforcement discretion, attempt to effectively rewrite the laws to match its policy preferences. See
id. at 833 (an agency may not “disregard legislative direction in the statutory
scheme that [it] administers”). In other words, an agency’s enforcement decisions
should be consonant with, rather than contrary to, the congressional policy
underlying the statutes the agency is charged with administering. Cf. Youngstown,
343 U.S. at 637 (Jackson, J., concurring) (“When the President takes measures
incompatible with the expressed or implied will of Congress, his power is at its
lowest ebb.”); Nat’l Ass’n of Home Builders v. Defenders of Wildlife, 551 U.S.
644, 658 (2007) (explaining that where Congress has given an agency the power to
administer a statutory scheme, a court will not vacate the agency’s decision about
the proper administration of the statute unless, among other things, the agency
“‘has relied on factors which Congress had not intended it to consider’” (quoting

1
See, e.g., Adam B. Cox & Cristina M. Rodríguez, The President and Immigration Law, 119 Yale
L.J. 458, 503–05 (2009) (describing Congress’s response to its dissatisfaction with the Executive’s use
of parole power for refugee populations in the 1960s and 1970s); see also, e.g., infra note 5 (discussing
legislative limitations on voluntary departure and extended voluntary departure).

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Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Ass’n of U.S., Inc. v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 463 U.S.
29, 43 (1983))).
Third, the Executive Branch ordinarily cannot, as the Court put it in Chaney,
“‘consciously and expressly adopt[] a general policy’ that is so extreme as to
amount to an abdication of its statutory responsibilities.” 470 U.S. at 833 n.4
(quoting Adams v. Richardson, 480 F.2d 1159, 1162 (D.C. Cir. 1973) (en banc));
see id. (noting that in situations where an agency had adopted such an extreme
policy, “the statute conferring authority on the agency might indicate that such
decisions were not ‘committed to agency discretion’”). Abdication of the duties
assigned to the agency by statute is ordinarily incompatible with the constitutional
obligation to faithfully execute the laws. But see, e.g., Presidential Authority to
Decline to Execute Unconstitutional Statutes, 18 Op. O.L.C. 199, 200 (1994)
(noting that under the Take Care Clause, “the President is required to act in
accordance with the laws—including the Constitution, which takes precedence
over other forms of law”).
Finally, lower courts, following Chaney, have indicated that non-enforcement
decisions are most comfortably characterized as judicially unreviewable exercises
of enforcement discretion when they are made on a case-by-case basis. See, e.g.,
Kenney v. Glickman, 96 F.3d 1118, 1123 (8th Cir. 1996); Crowley Caribbean
Transp., Inc. v. Peña, 37 F.3d 671, 676–77 (D.C. Cir. 1994). That reading of
Chaney reflects a conclusion that case-by-case enforcement decisions generally
avoid the concerns mentioned above. Courts have noted that “single-shot nonenforcement decisions” almost inevitably rest on “the sort of mingled assessments
of fact, policy, and law . . . that are, as Chaney recognizes, peculiarly within the
agency’s expertise and discretion.” Crowley Caribbean Transp., 37 F.3d at 676–
77 (emphasis omitted). Individual enforcement decisions made on the basis of
case-specific factors are also unlikely to constitute “general polic[ies] that [are] so
extreme as to amount to an abdication of [the agency’s] statutory responsibilities.”
Id. at 677 (quoting Chaney, 477 U.S. at 833 n.4). That does not mean that all
“general policies” respecting non-enforcement are categorically forbidden: Some
“general policies” may, for example, merely provide a framework for making
individualized, discretionary assessments about whether to initiate enforcement
actions in particular cases. Cf. Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 313 (1993) (explaining that an agency’s use of “reasonable presumptions and generic rules” is not
incompatible with a requirement to make individualized determinations). But a
general policy of non-enforcement that forecloses the exercise of case-by-case
discretion poses “special risks” that the agency has exceeded the bounds of its
enforcement discretion. Crowley Caribbean Transp., 37 F.3d at 677.
B.
We now turn, against this backdrop, to DHS’s proposed prioritization policy. In
their exercise of enforcement discretion, DHS and its predecessor, INS, have long

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employed guidance instructing immigration officers to prioritize the enforcement
of the immigration laws against certain categories of aliens and to deprioritize
their enforcement against others. See, e.g., INS Operating Instructions
§ 103(a)(1)(i) (1962); Memorandum for All Field Office Directors, ICE, et al.,
from John Morton, Director, ICE, Re: Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion
Consistent with the Civil Immigration Enforcement Priorities of the Agency for the
Apprehension, Detention, and Removal of Aliens (June 17, 2011); Memorandum
for All ICE Employees, from John Morton, Director, ICE, Re: Civil Immigration
Enforcement: Priorities for the Apprehension, Detention, and Removal of Aliens
(Mar. 2, 2011); Memorandum for Regional Directors, INS, et al., from Doris
Meissner, Commissioner, INS, Re: Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion (Nov. 17,
2000). The policy DHS proposes, which is similar to but would supersede earlier
policy guidance, is designed to “provide clearer and more effective guidance in the
pursuit” of DHS’s enforcement priorities; namely, “threats to national security,
public safety and border security.” Johnson Prioritization Memorandum at 1.
Under the proposed policy, DHS would identify three categories of undocumented aliens who would be priorities for removal from the United States. See
generally id. at 3–5. The highest priority category would include aliens who pose
particularly serious threats to national security, border security, or public safety,
including aliens engaged in or suspected of espionage or terrorism, aliens convicted of offenses related to participation in criminal street gangs, aliens convicted of
certain felony offenses, and aliens apprehended at the border while attempting to
enter the United States unlawfully. See id. at 3. The second-highest priority would
include aliens convicted of multiple or significant misdemeanor offenses; aliens
who are apprehended after unlawfully entering the United States who cannot
establish that they have been continuously present in the United States since
January 1, 2014; and aliens determined to have significantly abused the visa or
visa waiver programs. See id. at 3–4. The third priority category would include
other aliens who have been issued a final order of removal on or after January 1,
2014. See id. at 4. The policy would also provide that none of these aliens should
be prioritized for removal if they “qualify for asylum or another form of relief
under our laws.” Id. at 3–5.
The policy would instruct that resources should be directed to these priority
categories in a manner “commensurate with the level of prioritization identified.”
Id. at 5. It would, however, also leave significant room for immigration officials to
evaluate the circumstances of individual cases. See id. (stating that the policy
“requires DHS personnel to exercise discretion based on individual circumstances”). For example, the policy would permit an ICE Field Office Director, CBP
Sector Chief, or CBP Director of Field Operations to deprioritize the removal of
an alien falling in the highest priority category if, in her judgment, “there are
compelling and exceptional factors that clearly indicate the alien is not a threat to
national security, border security, or public safety and should not therefore be an
enforcement priority.” Id. at 3. Similar discretionary provisions would apply to

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aliens in the second and third priority categories.2 The policy would also provide a
non-exhaustive list of factors DHS personnel should consider in making such
deprioritization judgments.3 In addition, the policy would expressly state that its
terms should not be construed “to prohibit or discourage the apprehension,
detention, or removal of aliens unlawfully in the United States who are not
identified as priorities,” and would further provide that “[i]mmigration officers
and attorneys may pursue removal of an alien not identified as a priority” if, “in
the judgment of an ICE Field Office Director, removing such an alien would serve
an important federal interest.” Id. at 5.
DHS has explained that the proposed policy is designed to respond to the practical reality that the number of aliens who are removable under the INA vastly
exceeds the resources Congress has made available to DHS for processing and
carrying out removals. The resource constraints are striking. As noted, DHS has
informed us that there are approximately 11.3 million undocumented aliens in the
country, but that Congress has appropriated sufficient resources for ICE to remove
fewer than 400,000 aliens each year, a significant percentage of whom are
typically encountered at or near the border rather than in the interior of the
country. See E-mail for Karl R. Thompson, Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney
General, Office of Legal Counsel, from David Shahoulian, Deputy General
Counsel, DHS, Re: Immigration Opinion (Nov. 19, 2014) (“Shahoulian E-mail”).
The proposed policy explains that, because DHS “cannot respond to all immigration violations or remove all persons illegally in the United States,” it seeks to
“prioritize the use of enforcement personnel, detention space, and removal assets”
to “ensure that use of its limited resources is devoted to the pursuit of” DHS’s
highest priorities. Johnson Prioritization Memorandum at 2.
In our view, DHS’s proposed prioritization policy falls within the scope of its
lawful discretion to enforce the immigration laws. To begin with, the policy is
based on a factor clearly “within [DHS’s] expertise.” Chaney, 470 U.S. at 831.
Faced with sharply limited resources, DHS necessarily must make choices about
which removals to pursue and which removals to defer. DHS’s organic statute
itself recognizes this inevitable fact, instructing the Secretary to establish “national

2
Under the proposed policy, aliens in the second tier could be deprioritized if, “in the judgment of
an ICE Field Office Director, CBP Sector Chief, CBP Director of Field Operations, USCIS District
Director, or USCIS Service Center Director, there are factors indicating the alien is not a threat to
national security, border security, or public safety, and should not therefore be an enforcement
priority.” Johnson Prioritization Memorandum at 4. Aliens in the third tier could be deprioritized if, “in
the judgment of an immigration officer, the alien is not a threat to the integrity of the immigration
system or there are factors suggesting the alien should not be an enforcement priority.” Id. at 5.
3
These factors include “extenuating circumstances involving the offense of conviction; extended
length of time since the offense of conviction; length of time in the United States; military service;
family or community ties in the United States; status as a victim, witness or plaintiff in civil or criminal
proceedings; or compelling humanitarian factors such as poor health, age, pregnancy, a young child or
a seriously ill relative.” Johnson Prioritization Memorandum at 6.

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immigration enforcement policies and priorities.” 6 U.S.C. § 202(5). And an
agency’s need to ensure that scarce enforcement resources are used in an effective
manner is a quintessential basis for the use of prosecutorial discretion. See
Chaney, 470 U.S. at 831 (among the factors “peculiarly within [an agency’s]
expertise” are “whether agency resources are best spent on this violation or
another” and “whether the agency has enough resources to undertake the action at
all”).
The policy DHS has proposed, moreover, is consistent with the removal priorities established by Congress. In appropriating funds for DHS’s enforcement
activities—which, as noted, are sufficient to permit the removal of only a fraction
of the undocumented aliens currently in the country—Congress has directed DHS
to “prioritize the identification and removal of aliens convicted of a crime by the
severity of that crime.” Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act,
2014, Pub. L. No. 113-76, div. F, tit. II, 128 Stat. 5, 251 (“DHS Appropriations
Act”). Consistent with this directive, the proposed policy prioritizes individuals
convicted of criminal offenses involving active participation in a criminal street
gang, most offenses classified as felonies in the convicting jurisdiction, offenses
classified as “aggravated felonies” under the INA, and certain misdemeanor
offenses. Johnson Prioritization Memorandum at 3–4. The policy ranks these
priority categories according to the severity of the crime of conviction. The policy
also prioritizes the removal of other categories of aliens who pose threats to
national security or border security, matters about which Congress has demonstrated particular concern. See, e.g., 8 U.S.C. § 1226(c)(1)(D) (providing for
detention of aliens charged with removability on national security grounds); id.
§ 1225(b) & (c) (providing for an expedited removal process for certain aliens
apprehended at the border). The policy thus raises no concern that DHS has relied
“on factors which Congress had not intended it to consider.” Nat’l Ass’n of Home
Builders, 551 U.S. at 658.
Further, although the proposed policy is not a “single-shot non-enforcement
decision,” neither does it amount to an abdication of DHS’s statutory responsibilities, or constitute a legislative rule overriding the commands of the substantive
statute. Crowley Caribbean Transp., 37 F.3d at 676–77. The proposed policy
provides a general framework for exercising enforcement discretion in individual
cases, rather than establishing an absolute, inflexible policy of not enforcing the
immigration laws in certain categories of cases. Given that the resources Congress
has allocated to DHS are sufficient to remove only a small fraction of the total
population of undocumented aliens in the United States, setting forth written
guidance about how resources should presumptively be allocated in particular
cases is a reasonable means of ensuring that DHS’s severely limited resources are
systematically directed to its highest priorities across a large and diverse agency,
as well as ensuring consistency in the administration of the removal system. The
proposed policy’s identification of categories of aliens who constitute removal

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priorities is also consistent with the categorical nature of Congress’s instruction to
prioritize the removal of criminal aliens in the DHS Appropriations Act.
And, significantly, the proposed policy does not identify any category of removable aliens whose removal may not be pursued under any circumstances.
Although the proposed policy limits the discretion of immigration officials to
expend resources to remove non-priority aliens, it does not eliminate that discretion entirely. It directs immigration officials to use their resources to remove aliens
in a manner “commensurate with the level of prioritization identified,” but (as
noted above) it does not “prohibit or discourage the apprehension, detention, or
removal of aliens unlawfully in the United States who are not identified as
priorities.” Johnson Prioritization Memorandum at 5. Instead, it authorizes the
removal of even non-priority aliens if, in the judgment of an ICE Field Office
Director, “removing such an alien would serve an important federal interest,” a
standard the policy leaves open-ended. Id. Accordingly, the policy provides for
case-by-case determinations about whether an individual alien’s circumstances
warrant the expenditure of removal resources, employing a broad standard that
leaves ample room for the exercise of individualized discretion by responsible
officials. For these reasons, the proposed policy avoids the difficulties that might
be raised by a more inflexible prioritization policy and dispels any concern that
DHS has either undertaken to rewrite the immigration laws or abdicated its
statutory responsibilities with respect to non-priority aliens.4
II.
We turn next to the permissibility of DHS’s proposed deferred action programs
for certain aliens who are parents of U.S. citizens, lawful permanent residents
(“LPRs”), or DACA recipients, and who are not removal priorities under the
proposed policy discussed above. We begin by discussing the history and current
practice of deferred action. We then discuss the legal authorities on which deferred
4
In Crane v. Napolitano, a district court recently concluded in a non-precedential opinion that the
INA “mandates the initiation of removal proceedings whenever an immigration officer encounters an
illegal alien who is not ‘clearly and beyond a doubt entitled to be admitted.’” Opinion and Order
Respecting Pl. App. for Prelim. Inj. Relief, No. 3:12-cv-03247-O, 2013 WL 1744422, at *5 (N.D. Tex.
Apr. 23) (quoting 8 U.S.C. § 1225(b)(2)(A)). The court later dismissed the case for lack of jurisdiction.
See Crane v. Napolitano, No. 3:12-cv-03247-O, 2013 WL 8211660, at *4 (N.D. Tex. July 31).
Although the opinion lacks precedential value, we have nevertheless considered whether, as it suggests,
the text of the INA categorically forecloses the exercise of enforcement discretion with respect to aliens
who have not been formally admitted. The district court’s conclusion is, in our view, inconsistent with
the Supreme Court’s reading of the INA as permitting immigration officials to exercise enforcement
discretion at any stage of the removal process, including when deciding whether to initiate removal
proceedings against a particular alien. See Arizona, 132 S. Ct. at 2499; Am.-Arab Anti-Discrim. Comm.,
525 U.S. at 483–84. It is also difficult to square with authority holding that the presence of mandatory
language in a statute, standing alone, does not necessarily limit the Executive Branch’s enforcement
discretion, see, e.g., Chaney, 470 U.S. at 835; Inmates of Attica Corr. Facility v. Rockefeller, 477 F.2d
375, 381 (2d Cir. 1973).

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action relies and identify legal principles against which the proposed use of
deferred action can be evaluated. Finally, we turn to an analysis of the proposed
deferred action programs themselves, beginning with the program for parents of
U.S. citizens and LPRs, and concluding with the program for parents of DACA
recipients.
A.
In immigration law, the term “deferred action” refers to an exercise of administrative discretion in which immigration officials temporarily defer the removal of
an alien unlawfully present in the United States. Am.-Arab Anti-Discrim. Comm.,
525 U.S. at 484 (citing 6 Charles Gordon et al., Immigration Law and Procedure
§ 72.03[2][h] (1998)); see USCIS, Standard Operating Procedures for Handling
Deferred Action Requests at USCIS Field Offices at 3 (2012) (“USCIS SOP”); INS
Operating Instructions § 103.1(a)(1)(ii) (1977). It is one of a number of forms of
discretionary relief—in addition to such statutory and non-statutory measures as
parole, temporary protected status, deferred enforced departure, and extended
voluntary departure—that immigration officials have used over the years to
temporarily prevent the removal of undocumented aliens.5

5
Parole is available to aliens by statute “for urgent humanitarian reasons or significant public
benefit.” 8 U.S.C. § 1182(d)(5)(A). Among other things, parole gives aliens the ability to adjust their
status without leaving the United States if they are otherwise eligible for adjustment of status, see id.
§ 1255(a), and may eventually qualify them for Federal means-tested benefits, see id. §§ 1613,
1641(b)(4). Temporary protected status is available to nationals of designated foreign states affected by
armed conflicts, environmental disasters, and other extraordinary conditions. Id. § 1254a. Deferred
enforced departure, which “has no statutory basis” but rather is an exercise of “the President’s
constitutional powers to conduct foreign relations,” may be granted to nationals of appropriate foreign
states. USCIS, Adjudicator’s Field Manual § 38.2(a) (2014). Extended voluntary departure was a
remedy derived from the voluntary departure statute, which, before its amendment in 1996, permitted
the Attorney General to make a finding of removability if an alien agreed to voluntarily depart the
United States, without imposing a time limit for the alien’s departure. See 8 U.S.C. §§ 1252(b), 1254(e)
(1988 & Supp. II 1990); cf. 8 U.S.C. § 1229c (current provision of the INA providing authority to grant
voluntary departure, but limiting such grants to 120 days). Some commentators, however, suggested
that extended voluntary departure was in fact a form of “discretionary relief formulated administratively under the Attorney General’s general authority for enforcing immigration law.” Sharon Stephan,
Cong. Research Serv., 85-599 EPW, Extended Voluntary Departure and Other Grants of Blanket Relief
from Deportation at 1 (Feb. 23, 1985). It appears that extended voluntary departure is no longer used
following enactment of the Immigration Act of 1990, which established the temporary protected status
program. See U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Fee Schedule, 75 Fed. Reg. 33446, 33457
(June 11, 2010) (proposed rule) (noting that “since 1990 neither the Attorney General nor the Secretary
have designated a class of aliens for nationality-based ‘extended voluntary departure,’ and there no
longer are aliens in the United States benefiting from such a designation,” but noting that deferred
enforced departure is still used); H.R. Rep. No. 102-123, at 2 (1991) (indicating that in establishing
temporary protected status, Congress was “codif[ying] and supersed[ing]” extended voluntary
departure). See generally Andorra Bruno et al., Cong. Research Serv., Analysis of June 15, 2012 DHS
Memorandum, Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion with Respect to Individuals Who Came to the
United States as Children at 5–10 (July 13, 2012) (“CRS Immigration Report”).

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The practice of granting deferred action dates back several decades. For many
years after the INA was enacted, INS exercised prosecutorial discretion to grant
“non-priority” status to removable aliens who presented “appealing humanitarian
factors.” Letter for Leon Wildes, from E. A. Loughran, Associate Commissioner,
INS at 2 (July 16, 1973) (defining a “non-priority case” as “one in which the
Service in the exercise of discretion determines that adverse action would be
unconscionable because of appealing humanitarian factors”); see INS Operating
Instructions § 103.1(a)(1)(ii) (1962). This form of administrative discretion was
later termed “deferred action.” Am.-Arab Anti-Discrim. Comm., 525 U.S. at 484;
see INS Operating Instructions § 103.1(a)(1)(ii) (1977) (instructing immigration
officers to recommend deferred action whenever “adverse action would be
unconscionable because of the existence of appealing humanitarian factors”).
Although the practice of granting deferred action “developed without express
statutory authorization,” it has become a regular feature of the immigration
removal system that has been acknowledged by both Congress and the Supreme
Court. Am.-Arab Anti-Discrim. Comm., 525 U.S. at 484 (internal quotation marks
omitted); see id. at 485 (noting that a congressional enactment limiting judicial
review of decisions “to commence proceedings, adjudicate cases, or execute
removal orders against any alien under [the INA]” in 8 U.S.C. § 1252(g) “seems
clearly designed to give some measure of protection to ‘no deferred action’
decisions and similar discretionary determinations”); see also, e.g., 8 U.S.C.
§ 1154(a)(1)(D)(i)(II), (IV) (providing that certain individuals are “eligible for
deferred action”). Deferred action “does not confer any immigration status”—i.e.,
it does not establish any enforceable legal right to remain in the United States—
and it may be revoked by immigration authorities at their discretion. USCIS SOP
at 3, 7. Assuming it is not revoked, however, it represents DHS’s decision not to
seek the alien’s removal for a specified period of time.
Under longstanding regulations and policy guidance promulgated pursuant to
statutory authority in the INA, deferred action recipients may receive two
additional benefits. First, relying on DHS’s statutory authority to authorize certain
aliens to work in the United States, DHS regulations permit recipients of deferred
action to apply for work authorization if they can demonstrate an “economic
necessity for employment.” 8 C.F.R. § 274a.12(c)(14); see 8 U.S.C. § 1324a(h)(3)
(defining an “unauthorized alien” not entitled to work in the United States as an
alien who is neither an LPR nor “authorized to be . . . employed by [the INA] or
by the Attorney General [now the Secretary of Homeland Security]”). Second,
DHS has promulgated regulations and issued policy guidance providing that aliens
who receive deferred action will temporarily cease accruing “unlawful presence”
for purposes of 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(B)(i) and (a)(9)(C)(i)(I). 8 C.F.R.
§ 214.14(d)(3); 28 C.F.R. § 1100.35(b)(2); Memorandum for Field Leadership,
from Donald Neufeld, Acting Associate Director, Domestic Operations Directorate, USCIS, Re: Consolidation of Guidance Concerning Unlawful Presence for
Purposes of Sections 212(a)(9)(B)(i) and 212(a)(9)(C)(i)(I) of the Act at 42

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(May 6, 2009) (“USCIS Consolidation of Guidance”) (noting that “[a]ccrual of
unlawful presence stops on the date an alien is granted deferred action”); see
8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(B)(ii) (providing that an alien is “unlawfully present” if,
among other things, he “is present in the United States after the expiration of the
period of stay authorized by the Attorney General”).6
Immigration officials today continue to grant deferred action in individual cases
for humanitarian and other purposes, a practice we will refer to as “ad hoc
deferred action.” Recent USCIS guidance provides that personnel may recommend
ad hoc deferred action if they “encounter cases during [their] normal course of
business that they feel warrant deferred action.” USCIS SOP at 4. An alien may
also apply for ad hoc deferred action by submitting a signed, written request to
USCIS containing “[a]n explanation as to why he or she is seeking deferred
action” along with supporting documentation, proof of identity, and other records.
Id. at 3.
For decades, INS and later DHS have also implemented broader programs that
make discretionary relief from removal available for particular classes of aliens. In
many instances, these agencies have made such broad-based relief available
through the use of parole, temporary protected status, deferred enforced departure,
or extended voluntary departure. For example, from 1956 to 1972, INS implemented an extended voluntary departure program for physically present aliens who
were beneficiaries of approved visa petitions—known as “Third Preference” visa
petitions—relating to a specific class of visas for Eastern Hemisphere natives. See
United States ex rel. Parco v. Morris, 426 F. Supp. 976, 979–80 (E.D. Pa. 1977).
Similarly, for several years beginning in 1978, INS granted extended voluntary
departure to nurses who were eligible for H-1 visas. Voluntary Departure for Outof-Status Nonimmigrant H-1 Nurses, 43 Fed. Reg. 2776, 2776 (Jan. 19, 1978). In
addition, in more than two dozen instances dating to 1956, INS and later DHS
granted parole, temporary protected status, deferred enforced departure, or
extended voluntary departure to large numbers of nationals of designated foreign
states. See, e.g., CRS Immigration Report at 20–23; Cong. Research Serv.,
ED206779, Review of U.S. Refugee Resettlement Programs and Policies at 9, 12–
14 (1980). And in 1990, INS implemented a “Family Fairness” program that
authorized granting extended voluntary departure and work authorization to the
estimated 1.5 million spouses and children of aliens who had been granted legal
status under the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99603, 100 Stat. 3359 (“IRCA”). See Memorandum for Regional Commissioners,
6
Section 1182(a)(9)(B)(i) imposes three- and ten-year bars on the admission of aliens (other than
aliens admitted to permanent residence) who departed or were removed from the United States after
periods of unlawful presence of between 180 days and one year, or one year or more. Section
1182(a)(9)(C)(i)(I) imposes an indefinite bar on the admission of any alien who, without being
admitted, enters or attempts to reenter the United States after previously having been unlawfully
present in the United States for an aggregate period of more than one year.

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INS, from Gene McNary, Commissioner, INS, Re: Family Fairness: Guidelines
for Voluntary Departure under 8 CFR 242.5 for the Ineligible Spouses and
Children of Legalized Aliens (Feb. 2, 1990) (“Family Fairness Memorandum”);
see also CRS Immigration Report at 10.
On at least five occasions since the late 1990s, INS and later DHS have also
made discretionary relief available to certain classes of aliens through the use of
deferred action:
1. Deferred Action for Battered Aliens Under the Violence Against Women Act.
INS established a class-based deferred action program in 1997 for the benefit of
self-petitioners under the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 (“VAWA”), Pub.
L. No. 103-322, tit. IV, 108 Stat. 1796, 1902. VAWA authorized certain aliens
who have been abused by U.S. citizen or LPR spouses or parents to self-petition
for lawful immigration status, without having to rely on their abusive family
members to petition on their behalf. Id. § 40701(a) (codified as amended at
8 U.S.C. § 1154(a)(1)(A)(iii)–(iv), (vii)). The INS program required immigration
officers who approved a VAWA self-petition to assess, “on a case-by-case basis,
whether to place the alien in deferred action status” while the alien waited for a
visa to become available. Memorandum for Regional Directors et al., INS, from
Paul W. Virtue, Acting Executive Associate Commissioner, INS, Re: Supplemental Guidance on Battered Alien Self-Petitioning Process and Related Issues
at 3 (May 6, 1997). INS noted that “[b]y their nature, VAWA cases generally
possess factors that warrant consideration for deferred action.” Id. But because
“[i]n an unusual case, there may be factors present that would militate against
deferred action,” the agency instructed officers that requests for deferred action
should still “receive individual scrutiny.” Id. In 2000, INS reported to Congress
that, because of this program, no approved VAWA self-petitioner had been
removed from the country. See Battered Women Immigrant Protection Act:
Hearings on H.R. 3083 Before the Subcomm. on Immigration and Claims of the H.
Comm. on the Judiciary, 106th Cong. at 43 (July 20, 2000) (“H.R. 3083 Hearings”).
2. Deferred Action for T and U Visa Applicants. Several years later, INS instituted a similar deferred action program for applicants for nonimmigrant status or
visas made available under the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act
of 2000 (“VTVPA”), Pub. L. No. 106-386, 114 Stat. 1464. That Act created two
new nonimmigrant classifications: a “T visa” available to victims of human
trafficking and their family members, and a “U visa” for victims of certain other
crimes and their family members. Id. §§ 107(e), 1513(b)(3) (codified at 8 U.S.C.
§ 1101(a)(15)(T)(i), (U)(i)). In 2001, INS issued a memorandum directing
immigration officers to locate “possible victims in the above categories,” and to
use “[e]xisting authority and mechanisms such as parole, deferred action, and
stays of removal” to prevent those victims’ removal “until they have had the
opportunity to avail themselves of the provisions of the VTVPA.” Memorandum

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for Michael A. Pearson, Executive Associate Commissioner, INS, from Michael
D. Cronin, Acting Executive Associate Commissioner, INS, Re: Victims of
Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (VTVPA) Policy Memorandum
#2—“T” and “U” Nonimmigrant Visas at 2 (Aug. 30, 2001). In subsequent
memoranda, INS instructed officers to make “deferred action assessment[s]” for
“all [T visa] applicants whose applications have been determined to be bona fide,”
Memorandum for Johnny N. Williams, Executive Associate Commissioner, INS,
from Stuart Anderson, Executive Associate Commissioner, INS, Re: Deferred
Action for Aliens with Bona Fide Applications for T Nonimmigrant Status at 1
(May 8, 2002), as well as for all U visa applicants “determined to have submitted
prima facie evidence of [their] eligibility,” Memorandum for the Director,
Vermont Service Center, INS, from William R. Yates, USCIS, Re: Centralization
of Interim Relief for U Nonimmigrant Status Applicants at 5 (Oct. 8, 2003). In
2002 and 2007, INS and DHS promulgated regulations embodying these policies.
See 8 C.F.R. § 214.11(k)(1), (k)(4), (m)(2) (promulgated by New Classification for
Victims of Severe Forms of Trafficking in Persons; Eligibility for “T” Nonimmigrant Status, 67 Fed. Reg. 4784, 4800–01 (Jan. 31, 2002)) (providing that any
T visa applicant who presents “prima facie evidence” of his eligibility should have
his removal “automatically stay[ed]” and that applicants placed on a waiting list
for visas “shall maintain [their] current means to prevent removal (deferred action,
parole, or stay of removal)”); id. § 214.14(d)(2) (promulgated by New Classification for Victims of Criminal Activity; Eligibility for “U” Nonimmigrant Status,
72 Fed. Reg. 53014, 53039 (Sept. 17, 2007)) (“USCIS will grant deferred action or
parole to U-1 petitioners and qualifying family members while the U-1 petitioners
are on the waiting list” for visas.).
3. Deferred Action for Foreign Students Affected by Hurricane Katrina. As a
consequence of the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, several
thousand foreign students became temporarily unable to satisfy the requirements
for maintaining their lawful status as F-1 nonimmigrant students, which include
“pursuit of a ‘full course of study.’” USCIS, Interim Relief for Certain Foreign
Academic Students Adversely Affected by Hurricane Katrina: Frequently Asked
Questions (FAQ) at 1 (Nov. 25, 2005) (quoting 8 C.F.R. § 214.2(f)(6)), available
at http//www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/USCIS/Humanitarian/Special%20Situati
ons/Previous%20Special%20Situations%20By%20Topic/faq-interim-student-relie
f-hurricane-katrina.pdf (last visited Nov. 19, 2014). DHS announced that it would
grant deferred action to these students “based on the fact that [their] failure to
maintain status is directly due to Hurricane Katrina.” Id. at 7. To apply for
deferred action under this program, students were required to send a letter
substantiating their need for deferred action, along with an application for work
authorization. Press Release, USCIS, USCIS Announces Interim Relief for Foreign
Students Adversely Impacted by Hurricane Katrina at 1–2 (Nov. 25, 2005),
available at http://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/files/pressrelease/F1Student_
11_25_05_PR.pdf (last visited Nov. 19, 2014). USCIS explained that such

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requests for deferred action would be “decided on a case-by-case basis” and that it
could not “provide any assurance that all such requests will be granted.” Id. at 1.
4. Deferred Action for Widows and Widowers of U.S. Citizens. In 2009, DHS
implemented a deferred action program for certain widows and widowers of U.S.
citizens. USCIS explained that “no avenue of immigration relief exists for the
surviving spouse of a deceased U.S. citizen if the surviving spouse and the U.S.
citizen were married less than 2 years at the time of the citizen’s death” and
USCIS had not yet adjudicated a visa petition on the spouse’s behalf. Memorandum for Field Leadership, USCIS, from Donald Neufeld, Acting Associate
Director, USCIS, Re: Guidance Regarding Surviving Spouses of Deceased U.S.
Citizens and Their Children at 1 (Sept. 4, 2009). “In order to address humanitarian
concerns arising from cases involving surviving spouses of U.S. citizens,” USCIS
issued guidance permitting covered surviving spouses and “their qualifying
children who are residing in the United States” to apply for deferred action. Id.
at 2, 6. USCIS clarified that such relief would not be automatic, but rather would
be unavailable in the presence of, for example, “serious adverse factors, such as
national security concerns, significant immigration fraud, commission of other
crimes, or public safety reasons.” Id. at 6.7
5. Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals. Announced by DHS in 2012,
DACA makes deferred action available to “certain young people who were
brought to this country as children” and therefore “[a]s a general matter . . . lacked
the intent to violate the law.” Memorandum for David Aguilar, Acting Commissioner, CBP, et al., from Janet Napolitano, Secretary, DHS, Re: Exercising
Prosecutorial Discretion with Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United
States as Children at 1 (June 15, 2012) (“Napolitano Memorandum”). An alien is
eligible for DACA if she was under the age of 31 when the program began;
arrived in the United States before the age of 16; continuously resided in the
United States for at least 5 years immediately preceding June 15, 2012; was
physically present on June 15, 2012; satisfies certain educational or military
service requirements; and neither has a serious criminal history nor “poses a threat
to national security or public safety.” See id. DHS evaluates applicants’ eligibility
for DACA on a case-by-case basis. See id. at 2; USCIS, Deferred Action for
Childhood Arrivals (DACA) Toolkit: Resources for Community Partners at 11
(“DACA Toolkit”). Successful DACA applicants receive deferred action for a
7

Several months after the deferred action program was announced, Congress eliminated the requirement that an alien be married to a U.S. citizen “for at least 2 years at the time of the citizen’s
death” to retain his or her eligibility for lawful immigration status. Department of Homeland Security
Appropriations Act, 2010, Pub. L. No. 111-83, § 568(c), 123 Stat. 2142, 2186 (2009). Concluding that
this legislation rendered its surviving spouse guidance “obsolete,” USCIS withdrew its earlier guidance
and treated all pending applications for deferred action as visa petitions. See Memorandum for
Executive Leadership, USCIS, from Donald Neufeld, Acting Associate Director, USCIS, et al., Re
Additional Guidance Regarding Surviving Spouses of Deceased U.S. Citizens and Their Children
(REVISED) at 3, 10 (Dec. 2, 2009).

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period of two years, subject to renewal. See DACA Toolkit at 11. DHS has stated
that grants of deferred action under DACA may be terminated at any time, id.
at 16, and “confer[] no substantive right, immigration status or pathway to
citizenship,” Napolitano Memorandum at 3.8
Congress has long been aware of the practice of granting deferred action, including in its categorical variety, and of its salient features; and it has never acted
to disapprove or limit the practice.9 On the contrary, it has enacted several pieces
of legislation that have either assumed that deferred action would be available in
certain circumstances, or expressly directed that deferred action be extended to
certain categories of aliens. For example, as Congress was considering VAWA
reauthorization legislation in 2000, INS officials testified before Congress about
their deferred action program for VAWA self-petitioners, explaining that
“[a]pproved [VAWA] self-petitioners are placed in deferred action status,” such
that “[n]o battered alien who has filed a[n approved] self petition . . . has been
deported.” H.R. 3083 Hearings at 43. Congress responded by not only acknowledging but also expanding the deferred action program in the 2000 VAWA
reauthorization legislation, providing that children who could no longer selfpetition under VAWA because they were over the age of 21 would nonetheless be
“eligible for deferred action and work authorization.” Victims of Trafficking and

8

Before DACA was announced, our Office was consulted about whether such a program would be
legally permissible. As we orally advised, our preliminary view was that such a program would be
permissible, provided that immigration officials retained discretion to evaluate each application on an
individualized basis. We noted that immigration officials typically consider factors such as having been
brought to the United States as a child in exercising their discretion to grant deferred action in
individual cases. We explained, however, that extending deferred action to individuals who satisfied
these and other specified criteria on a class-wide basis would raise distinct questions not implicated by
ad hoc grants of deferred action. We advised that it was critical that, like past policies that made
deferred action available to certain classes of aliens, the DACA program require immigration officials
to evaluate each application for deferred action on a case-by-case basis, rather than granting deferred
action automatically to all applicants who satisfied the threshold eligibility criteria. We also noted that,
although the proposed program was predicated on humanitarian concerns that appeared less particularized and acute than those underlying certain prior class-wide deferred action programs, the concerns
animating DACA were nonetheless consistent with the types of concerns that have customarily guided
the exercise of immigration enforcement discretion.
9
Congress has considered legislation that would limit the practice of granting deferred action, but it
has never enacted such a measure. In 2011, a bill was introduced in both the House and the Senate that
would have temporarily suspended DHS’s authority to grant deferred action except in narrow
circumstances. See H.R. 2497, 112th Cong. (2011); S. 1380, 112th Cong. (2011). Neither chamber,
however, voted on the bill. This year, the House passed a bill that purported to bar any funding for
DACA or other class-wide deferred action programs, H.R. 5272, 113th Cong. (2014), but the Senate
has not considered the legislation. Because the Supreme Court has instructed that unenacted legislation
is an unreliable indicator of legislative intent, see Red Lion Broad. Co. v. FCC, 395 U.S. 367, 381 n.11
(1969), we do not draw any inference regarding congressional policy from these unenacted bills.

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Violence Protection Act of 2000, Pub. L. No. 106-386, § 1503(d)(2), 114 Stat.
1464, 1522 (codified at 8 U.S.C. § 1154(a)(1)(D)(i)(II), (IV)).10
Congress demonstrated a similar awareness of INS’s (and later DHS’s) deferred action program for bona fide T and U visa applicants. As discussed above,
that program made deferred action available to nearly all individuals who could
make a prima facie showing of eligibility for a T or U visa. In 2008 legislation,
Congress authorized DHS to “grant . . . an administrative stay of a final order of
removal” to any such individual. William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims
Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-457, § 204, 122 Stat.
5044, 5060 (codified at 8 U.S.C. § 1227(d)(1)). Congress further clarified that
“[t]he denial of a request for an administrative stay of removal under this subsection shall not preclude the alien from applying for . . . deferred action.” Id. It also
directed DHS to compile a report detailing, among other things, how long DHS’s
“specially trained [VAWA] Unit at the [USCIS] Vermont Service Center” took to
adjudicate victim-based immigration applications for “deferred action,” along with
“steps taken to improve in this area.” Id. § 238. Representative Berman, the bill’s
sponsor, explained that the Vermont Service Center should “strive to issue work
authorization and deferred action” to “[i]mmigrant victims of domestic violence,
sexual assault and other violence crimes . . . in most instances within 60 days of
filing.” 154 Cong. Rec. 24603 (2008).
In addition, in other enactments, Congress has specified that certain classes of
individuals should be made “eligible for deferred action.” These classes include
certain immediate family members of LPRs who were killed on September 11,
2001, USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-56, § 423(b), 115 Stat. 272,
361, and certain immediate family members of certain U.S. citizens killed in
combat, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004, Pub. L. No.
108-136, § 1703(c)–(d), 117 Stat. 1392, 1694. In the same legislation, Congress
made these individuals eligible to obtain lawful status as “family-sponsored
immigrant[s]” or “immediate relative[s]” of U.S. citizens. Pub. L. No. 107-56,
§ 423(b), 115 Stat. 272, 361; Pub. L. No. 108-136, § 1703(c)(1)(A), 117 Stat.
1392, 1694; see generally Scialabba v. Cuellar de Osorio, 134 S. Ct. 2191, 2197
(2014) (plurality opinion) (explaining which aliens typically qualify as familysponsored immigrants or immediate relatives).
Finally, Congress acknowledged the practice of granting deferred action in the
REAL ID Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-13, div. B, 119 Stat. 231, 302 (codified at
10
Five years later, in the Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act
of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-162, 119 Stat. 2960, Congress specified that, “[u]pon the approval of a
petition as a VAWA self-petitioner, the alien . . . is eligible for work authorization.” Id. § 814(b)
(codified at 8 U.S.C. § 1154(a)(1)(K)). One of the Act’s sponsors explained that while this provision
was intended to “give[] DHS statutory authority to grant work authorization . . . without having to rely
upon deferred action . . . [t]he current practice of granting deferred action to approved VAWA selfpetitioners should continue.” 151 Cong. Rec. 29334 (2005) (statement of Rep. Conyers).

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49 U.S.C. § 30301 note), which makes a state-issued driver’s license or identification card acceptable for federal purposes only if the state verifies, among other
things, that the card’s recipient has “[e]vidence of [l]awful [s]tatus.” Congress
specified that, for this purpose, acceptable evidence of lawful status includes proof
of, among other things, citizenship, lawful permanent or temporary residence, or
“approved deferred action status.” Id. § 202(c)(2)(B)(viii).
B.
The practice of granting deferred action, like the practice of setting enforcement priorities, is an exercise of enforcement discretion rooted in DHS’s authority
to enforce the immigration laws and the President’s duty to take care that the laws
are faithfully executed. It is one of several mechanisms by which immigration
officials, against a backdrop of limited enforcement resources, exercise their
“broad discretion” to administer the removal system—and, more specifically, their
discretion to determine whether “it makes sense to pursue removal” in particular
circumstances. Arizona, 132 S. Ct. at 2499.
Deferred action, however, differs in at least three respects from more familiar
and widespread exercises of enforcement discretion. First, unlike (for example) the
paradigmatic exercise of prosecutorial discretion in a criminal case, the conferral
of deferred action does not represent a decision not to prosecute an individual for
past unlawful conduct; it instead represents a decision to openly tolerate an
undocumented alien’s continued presence in the United States for a fixed period
(subject to revocation at the agency’s discretion). Second, unlike most exercises of
enforcement discretion, deferred action carries with it benefits in addition to nonenforcement itself; specifically, the ability to seek employment authorization and
suspension of unlawful presence for purposes of 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(9)(B)(i) and
(a)(9)(C)(i)(I). Third, class-based deferred action programs, like those for VAWA
recipients and victims of Hurricane Katrina, do not merely enable individual
immigration officials to select deserving beneficiaries from among those aliens
who have been identified or apprehended for possible removal—as is the case with
ad hoc deferred action—but rather set forth certain threshold eligibility criteria and
then invite individuals who satisfy these criteria to apply for deferred action status.
While these features of deferred action are somewhat unusual among exercises
of enforcement discretion, the differences between deferred action and other
exercises of enforcement discretion are less significant than they might initially
appear. The first feature—the toleration of an alien’s continued unlawful presence—is an inevitable element of almost any exercise of discretion in immigration
enforcement. Any decision not to remove an unlawfully present alien—even
through an exercise of routine enforcement discretion—necessarily carries with it
a tacit acknowledgment that the alien will continue to be present in the United
States without legal status. Deferred action arguably goes beyond such tacit
acknowledgment by expressly communicating to the alien that his or her unlawful

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presence will be tolerated for a prescribed period of time. This difference is not, in
our view, insignificant. But neither does it fundamentally transform deferred
action into something other than an exercise of enforcement discretion: As we
have previously noted, deferred action confers no lawful immigration status,
provides no path to lawful permanent residence or citizenship, and is revocable at
any time in the agency’s discretion.
With respect to the second feature, the additional benefits deferred action confers—the ability to apply for work authorization and the tolling of unlawful
presence—do not depend on background principles of agency discretion under
DHS’s general immigration authorities or the Take Care Clause at all, but rather
depend on independent and more specific statutory authority rooted in the text of
the INA. The first of those authorities, DHS’s power to prescribe which aliens are
authorized to work in the United States, is grounded in 8 U.S.C. § 1324a(h)(3),
which defines an “unauthorized alien” not entitled to work in the United States as
an alien who is neither an LPR nor “authorized to be . . . employed by [the INA]
or by the Attorney General [now the Secretary of Homeland Security].” This
statutory provision has long been understood to recognize the authority of the
Secretary (and the Attorney General before him) to grant work authorization to
particular classes of aliens. See 8 C.F.R. § 274a.12; see also Perales v. Casillas,
903 F.2d 1043, 1048–50 (5th Cir. 1990) (describing the authority recognized by
section 1324a(h)(3) as “permissive” and largely “unfettered”).11 Although the INA
11
Section 1324a(h)(3) was enacted in 1986 as part of IRCA. Before then, the INA contained no
provisions comprehensively addressing the employment of aliens or expressly delegating the authority
to regulate the employment of aliens to a responsible federal agency. INS assumed the authority to
prescribe the classes of aliens authorized to work in the United States under its general responsibility to
administer the immigration laws. In 1981, INS promulgated regulations codifying its existing
procedures and criteria for granting employment authorization. See Employment Authorization to
Aliens in the United States, 46 Fed. Reg. 25079, 25080–81 (May 5, 1981) (citing 8 U.S.C. § 1103(a)).
Those regulations permitted certain categories of aliens who lacked lawful immigration status,
including deferred action recipients, to apply for work authorization under certain circumstances.
8 C.F.R. § 109.1(b)(7) (1982). In IRCA, Congress introduced a “comprehensive scheme prohibiting the
employment of illegal aliens in the United States,” Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB, 535
U.S. 137, 147 (2002), to be enforced primarily through criminal and civil penalties on employers who
knowingly employ an “unauthorized alien.” As relevant here, Congress defined an “unauthorized
alien” barred from employment in the United States as an alien who “is not . . . either (A) an alien
lawfully admitted for permanent residence, or (B) authorized to be so employed by this chapter or by
the Attorney General.” 8 U.S.C. § 1324a(h)(3) (emphasis added). Shortly after IRCA was enacted, INS
denied a petition to rescind its employment authorization regulation, rejecting an argument that “the
phrase ‘authorized to be so employed by this Act or the Attorney General’ does not recognize the
Attorney General’s authority to grant work authorization except to those aliens who have already been
granted specific authorization by the Act.” Employment Authorization; Classes of Aliens Eligible, 52
Fed. Reg. 46092, 46093 (Dec. 4, 1987). Because the same statutory phrase refers both to aliens
authorized to be employed by the INA and aliens authorized to be employed by the Attorney General,
INS concluded that the only way to give effect to both references is to conclude “that Congress, being
fully aware of the Attorney General’s authority to promulgate regulations, and approving of the manner
in which he has exercised that authority in this matter, defined ‘unauthorized alien’ in such fashion as
to exclude aliens who have been authorized employment by the Attorney General through the

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requires the Secretary to grant work authorization to particular classes of aliens,
see, e.g., 8 U.S.C. § 1158(c)(1)(B) (aliens granted asylum), it places few limitations on the Secretary’s authority to grant work authorization to other classes of
aliens. Further, and notably, additional provisions of the INA expressly contemplate that the Secretary may grant work authorization to aliens lacking lawful
immigration status—even those who are in active removal proceedings or, in
certain circumstances, those who have already received final orders of removal.
See id. § 1226(a)(3) (permitting the Secretary to grant work authorization to an
otherwise work-eligible alien who has been arrested and detained pending a
decision whether to remove the alien from the United States); id. § 1231(a)(7)
(permitting the Secretary under certain narrow circumstances to grant work
authorization to aliens who have received final orders of removal). Consistent with
these provisions, the Secretary has long permitted certain additional classes of
aliens who lack lawful immigration status to apply for work authorization,
including deferred action recipients who can demonstrate an economic necessity
for employment. See 8 C.F.R. § 274a.12(c)(14); see also id. § 274a.12(c)(8)
(applicants for asylum), (c)(10) (applicants for cancellation of removal); supra
note 11 (discussing 1981 regulations).
The Secretary’s authority to suspend the accrual of unlawful presence of deferred action recipients is similarly grounded in the INA. The relevant statutory
provision treats an alien as “unlawfully present” for purposes of 8 U.S.C.
§ 1182(a)(9)(B)(i) and (a)(9)(C)(i)(I) if he “is present in the United States after the
expiration of the period of stay authorized by the Attorney General.” 8 U.S.C.
§ 1182(a)(9)(B)(ii). That language contemplates that the Attorney General (and
now the Secretary) may authorize an alien to stay in the United States without
accruing unlawful presence under section 1182(a)(9)(B)(i) or section
1182(a)(9)(C)(i). And DHS regulations and policy guidance interpret a “period of
stay authorized by the Attorney General” to include periods during which an alien
has been granted deferred action. See 8 C.F.R. § 214.14(d)(3); 28 C.F.R.
§ 1100.35(b)(2); USCIS Consolidation of Guidance at 42.
The final unusual feature of deferred action programs is particular to classbased programs. The breadth of such programs, in combination with the first two
features of deferred action, may raise particular concerns about whether immigration officials have undertaken to substantively change the statutory removal
system rather than simply adapting its application to individual circumstances. But
the salient feature of class-based programs—the establishment of an affirmative
application process with threshold eligibility criteria—does not in and of itself
cross the line between executing the law and rewriting it. Although every classwide deferred action program that has been implemented to date has established
regulatory process, in addition to those who are authorized employment by statute.” Id.; see Commodity
Futures Trading Comm’n v. Schor, 478 U.S. 833, 844 (1986) (stating that “considerable weight must
be accorded” an agency’s “contemporaneous interpretation of the statute it is entrusted to administer”).

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certain threshold eligibility criteria, each program has also left room for case-bycase determinations, giving immigration officials discretion to deny applications
even if the applicant fulfills all of the program criteria. See supra pp. 15–18. Like
the establishment of enforcement priorities discussed in Part I, the establishment
of threshold eligibility criteria can serve to avoid arbitrary enforcement decisions
by individual officers, thereby furthering the goal of ensuring consistency across a
large agency. The guarantee of individualized, case-by-case review helps avoid
potential concerns that, in establishing such eligibility criteria, the Executive is
attempting to rewrite the law by defining new categories of aliens who are
automatically entitled to particular immigration relief. See Crowley Caribbean
Transp., 37 F.3d at 676–77; see also Chaney, 470 U.S. at 833 n.4. Furthermore,
while permitting potentially eligible individuals to apply for an exercise of
enforcement discretion is not especially common, many law enforcement agencies
have developed programs that invite violators of the law to identify themselves to
the authorities in exchange for leniency.12 Much as is the case with those programs, inviting eligible aliens to identify themselves through an application
process may serve the agency’s law enforcement interests by encouraging lowerpriority individuals to identify themselves to the agency. In so doing, the process
may enable the agency to better focus its scarce resources on higher enforcement
priorities.
Apart from the considerations just discussed, perhaps the clearest indication
that these features of deferred action programs are not per se impermissible is the
fact that Congress, aware of these features, has repeatedly enacted legislation
appearing to endorse such programs. As discussed above, Congress has not only
directed that certain classes of aliens be made eligible for deferred action programs—and in at least one instance, in the case of VAWA beneficiaries, directed
the expansion of an existing program—but also ranked evidence of approved
deferred action status as evidence of “lawful status” for purposes of the REAL ID
Act. These enactments strongly suggest that when DHS in the past has decided to
grant deferred action to an individual or class of individuals, it has been acting in a
manner consistent with congressional policy “‘rather than embarking on a frolic of
its own.’” United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc., 474 U.S. 121, 139
12
For example, since 1978, the Department of Justice’s Antitrust Division has implemented a
“leniency program” under which a corporation that reveals an antitrust conspiracy in which it
participated may receive a conditional promise that it will not be prosecuted. See Dep’t of Justice,
Frequently Asked Questions Regarding the Antitrust Division’s Leniency Program and Model Leniency
Letters (November 19, 2008), available at http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/criminal/239583.pdf (last
visited Nov. 19, 2014); see also Internal Revenue Manual § 9.5.11.9(2) (Revised IRS Voluntary
Disclosure Practice), available at http://www.irs.gov/uac/Revised-IRS-Voluntary-Disclosure-Practice
(last visited Nov. 19, 2014) (explaining that a taxpayer’s voluntary disclosure of misreported tax
information “may result in prosecution not being recommended”); U.S. Marshals Service, Fugitive Safe
Surrender FAQs, available at http://www.usmarshals.gov/safesurrender/faqs.html (last visited Nov. 19,
2014) (stating that fugitives who surrender at designated sites and times under the “Fugitive Safe
Surrender” program are likely to receive “favorable consideration”).

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(1985) (quoting Red Lion Broad. Co. v. FCC, 395 U.S. 367, 375 (1969)); cf. id. at
137–39 (concluding that Congress acquiesced in an agency’s assertion of regulatory authority by “refus[ing] . . . to overrule” the agency’s view after it was specifically “brought to Congress’[s] attention,” and further finding implicit congressional approval in legislation that appeared to acknowledge the regulatory authority in
question); Dames & Moore v. Regan, 453 U.S. 654, 680 (1981) (finding that
Congress “implicitly approved the practice of claim settlement by executive
agreement” by enacting the International Claims Settlement Act of 1949, which
“create[d] a procedure to implement” those very agreements).
Congress’s apparent endorsement of certain deferred action programs does not
mean, of course, that a deferred action program can be lawfully extended to any
group of aliens, no matter its characteristics or its scope, and no matter the
circumstances in which the program is implemented. Because deferred action, like
the prioritization policy discussed above, is an exercise of enforcement discretion
rooted in the Secretary’s broad authority to enforce the immigration laws and the
President’s duty to take care that the laws are faithfully executed, it is subject to
the same four general principles previously discussed. See supra pp. 6–7. Thus,
any expansion of deferred action to new classes of aliens must be carefully
scrutinized to ensure that it reflects considerations within the agency’s expertise,
and that it does not seek to effectively rewrite the laws to match the Executive’s
policy preferences, but rather operates in a manner consonant with congressional
policy expressed in the statute. See supra pp. 6–7 (citing Youngstown, 343 U.S. at
637, and Nat’l Ass’n of Home Builders, 551 U.S. at 658). Immigration officials
cannot abdicate their statutory responsibilities under the guise of exercising
enforcement discretion. See supra p. 7 (citing Chaney, 470 U.S. at 833 n.4). And
any new deferred action program should leave room for individualized evaluation
of whether a particular case warrants the expenditure of resources for enforcement.
See supra p. 7 (citing Glickman, 96 F.3d at 1123, and Crowley Caribbean Transp.,
37 F.3d at 676–77).
Furthermore, because deferred action programs depart in certain respects from
more familiar and widespread exercises of enforcement discretion, particularly
careful examination is needed to ensure that any proposed expansion of deferred
action complies with these general principles, so that the proposed program does
not, in effect, cross the line between executing the law and rewriting it. In
analyzing whether the proposed programs cross this line, we will draw substantial
guidance from Congress’s history of legislation concerning deferred action. In the
absence of express statutory guidance, the nature of deferred action programs
Congress has implicitly approved by statute helps to shed light on Congress’s own
understandings about the permissible uses of deferred action. Those understandings, in turn, help to inform our consideration of whether the proposed deferred
action programs are “faithful[]” to the statutory scheme Congress has enacted.
U.S. Const. art. II, § 3.

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C.
We now turn to the specifics of DHS’s proposed deferred action programs.
DHS has proposed implementing a policy under which an alien could apply for,
and would be eligible to receive, deferred action if he or she: (1) is not an enforcement priority under DHS policy; (2) has continuously resided in the United
States since before January 1, 2010; (3) is physically present in the United States
both when DHS announces its program and at the time of application for deferred
action; (4) has a child who is a U.S. citizen or LPR; and (5) presents “no other
factors that, in the exercise of discretion, make[] the grant of deferred action
inappropriate.” Johnson Deferred Action Memorandum at 4. You have also asked
about the permissibility of a similar program that would be open to parents of
children who have received deferred action under the DACA program. We first
address DHS’s proposal to implement a deferred action program for the parents of
U.S. citizens and LPRs, and then turn to the permissibility of the program for
parents of DACA recipients in the next section.
1.
We begin by considering whether the proposed program for the parents of U.S.
citizens and LPRs reflects considerations within the agency’s expertise. DHS has
offered two justifications for the proposed program for the parents of U.S. citizens
and LPRs. First, as noted above, severe resource constraints make it inevitable that
DHS will not remove the vast majority of aliens who are unlawfully present in the
United States. Consistent with Congress’s instruction, DHS prioritizes the removal
of individuals who have significant criminal records, as well as others who present
dangers to national security, public safety, or border security. See supra p. 10.
Parents with longstanding ties to the country and who have no significant criminal
records or other risk factors rank among the agency’s lowest enforcement
priorities; absent significant increases in funding, the likelihood that any individual in that category will be determined to warrant the expenditure of severely
limited enforcement resources is very low. Second, DHS has explained that the
program would serve an important humanitarian interest in keeping parents
together with children who are lawfully present in the United States, in situations
where such parents have demonstrated significant ties to community and family in
this country. See Shahoulian E-mail.
With respect to DHS’s first justification, the need to efficiently allocate scarce
enforcement resources is a quintessential basis for an agency’s exercise of
enforcement discretion. See Chaney, 470 U.S. at 831. Because, as discussed
earlier, Congress has appropriated only a small fraction of the funds needed for
full enforcement, DHS can remove no more than a small fraction of the individuals who are removable under the immigration laws. See supra p. 9. The agency
must therefore make choices about which violations of the immigration laws it

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will prioritize and pursue. And as Chaney makes clear, such choices are entrusted
largely to the Executive’s discretion. 470 U.S. at 831.
The deferred action program DHS proposes would not, of course, be costless.
Processing applications for deferred action and its renewal requires manpower and
resources. See Arizona, 132 S. Ct. at 2521 (Scalia, J., concurring in part and
dissenting in part). But DHS has informed us that the costs of administering the
proposed program would be borne almost entirely by USCIS through the collection of application fees. See Shahoulian E-mail; see also 8 U.S.C. § 1356(m);
8 C.F.R. § 103.7(b)(1)(i)(C), (b)(1)(i)(HH). DHS has indicated that the costs of
administering the deferred action program would therefore not detract in any
significant way from the resources available to ICE and CBP—the enforcement
arms of DHS—which rely on money appropriated by Congress to fund their
operations. See Shahoulian E-mail. DHS has explained that, if anything, the
proposed deferred action program might increase ICE’s and CBP’s efficiency by
in effect using USCIS’s fee-funded resources to enable those enforcement
divisions to more easily identify non-priority aliens and focus their resources on
pursuing aliens who are strong candidates for removal. See id. The proposed
program, in short, might help DHS address its severe resource limitations, and at
the very least likely would not exacerbate them. See id.
DHS does not, however, attempt to justify the proposed program solely as a
cost-saving measure, or suggest that its lack of resources alone is sufficient to
justify creating a deferred action program for the proposed class. Rather, as noted
above, DHS has explained that the program would also serve a particularized
humanitarian interest in promoting family unity by enabling those parents of U.S.
citizens and LPRs who are not otherwise enforcement priorities and who have
demonstrated community and family ties in the United States (as evidenced by the
length of time they have remained in the country) to remain united with their
children in the United States. Like determining how best to respond to resource
constraints, determining how to address such “human concerns” in the immigration context is a consideration that is generally understood to fall within DHS’s
expertise. Arizona, 132 S. Ct. at 2499.
This second justification for the program also appears consonant with congressional policy embodied in the INA. Numerous provisions of the statute reflect a
particular concern with uniting aliens with close relatives who have attained
lawful immigration status in the United States. See, e.g., Fiallo v. Bell, 430 U.S.
787, 795 n.6 (1977); INS v. Errico, 385 U.S. 214, 220 n.9 (1966) (“‘The legislative
history of the Immigration and Nationality Act clearly indicates that the Congress . . . was concerned with the problem of keeping families of United States
citizens and immigrants united.’” (quoting H.R. Rep. No. 85-1199, at 7 (1957)).
The INA provides a path to lawful status for the parents, as well as other immediate relatives, of U.S. citizens: U.S. citizens aged twenty-one or over may petition
for parents to obtain visas that would permit them to enter and permanently reside

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in the United States, and there is no limit on the overall number of such petitions
that may be granted. See 8 U.S.C. § 1151(b)(2)(A)(i); see also Cuellar de Osorio,
134 S. Ct. at 2197–99 (describing the process for obtaining a family-based
immigrant visa). And although the INA contains no parallel provision permitting
LPRs to petition on behalf of their parents, it does provide a path for LPRs to
become citizens, at which point they too can petition to obtain visas for their
parents. See, e.g., 8 U.S.C. § 1427(a) (providing that aliens are generally eligible
to become naturalized citizens after five years of lawful permanent residence); id.
§ 1430(a) (alien spouses of U.S. citizens become eligible after three years of
lawful permanent residence); Demore v. Kim, 538 U.S. 510, 544 (2003).13
Additionally, the INA empowers the Attorney General to cancel the removal of,
and adjust to lawful permanent resident status, aliens who have been physically
present in the United States for a continuous period of not less than ten years,
exhibit good moral character, have not been convicted of specified offenses, and
have immediate relatives who are U.S. citizens or LPRs and who would suffer
exceptional hardship from the alien’s removal. 8 U.S.C. § 1229b(b)(1). DHS’s
proposal to focus on the parents of U.S. citizens and LPRs thus tracks a congressional concern, expressed in the INA, with uniting the immediate families of
individuals who have permanent legal ties to the United States.
At the same time, because the temporary relief DHS’s proposed program would
confer to such parents is sharply limited in comparison to the benefits Congress
has made available through statute, DHS’s proposed program would not operate to
circumvent the limits Congress has placed on the availability of those benefits.
The statutory provisions discussed above offer the parents of U.S. citizens and
LPRs the prospect of permanent lawful status in the United States. The cancellation of removal provision, moreover, offers the prospect of receiving such status
13

The INA does permit LPRs to petition on behalf of their spouses and children even before they
have attained citizenship. See 8 U.S.C. § 1153(a)(2). However, the exclusion of LPRs’ parents from
this provision does not appear to reflect a congressional judgment that, until they attain citizenship,
LPRs lack an interest in being united with their parents comparable to their interest in being united with
their other immediate relatives. The distinction between parents and other relatives originated with a
1924 statute that exempted the wives and minor children of U.S. citizens from immigration quotas,
gave “preference status”—eligibility for a specially designated pool of immigrant visas—to other
relatives of U.S. citizens, and gave no favorable treatment to the relatives of LPRs. Immigration Act of
1924, Pub. L. No. 68-139, §§ 4(a), 6, 43 Stat. 153, 155–56. In 1928, Congress extended preference
status to LPRs’ wives and minor children, reasoning that because such relatives would be eligible for
visas without regard to any quota when their LPR relatives became citizens, granting preference status
to LPRs’ wives and minor children would “hasten[]” the “family reunion.” S. Rep. No. 70-245, at 2
(1928); see Act of May 29, 1928, ch. 914, 45 Stat. 1009, 1009–10. The special visa status for wives and
children of LPRs thus mirrored, and was designed to complement, the special visa status given to wives
and minor children of U.S. citizens. In 1965, Congress eliminated the basis on which the distinction
had rested by exempting all “immediate relatives” of U.S. citizens, including parents, from numerical
restrictions on immigration. Pub. L. No. 89-236, § 1, 79 Stat. 911, 911. But it did not amend eligibility
for preference status for relatives of LPRs to reflect that change. We have not been able to discern any
rationale for this omission in the legislative history or statutory text of the 1965 law.

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immediately, without the delays generally associated with the family-based
immigrant visa process. DHS’s proposed program, in contrast, would not grant the
parents of U.S. citizens and LPRs any lawful immigration status, provide a path to
permanent residence or citizenship, or otherwise confer any legally enforceable
entitlement to remain in the United States. See USCIS SOP at 3. It is true that, as
we have discussed, a grant of deferred action would confer eligibility to apply for
and obtain work authorization, pursuant to the Secretary’s statutory authority to
grant such authorization and the longstanding regulations promulgated thereunder.
See supra pp. 13, 21–22. But unlike the automatic employment eligibility that
accompanies LPR status, see 8 U.S.C. § 1324a(h)(3), this authorization could be
granted only on a showing of economic necessity, and would last only for the
limited duration of the deferred action grant, see 8 C.F.R. § 274a.12(c)(14).
The other salient features of the proposal are similarly consonant with congressional policy. The proposed program would focus on parents who are not
enforcement priorities under the prioritization policy discussed above—a policy
that, as explained earlier, comports with the removal priorities set by Congress.
See supra p. 10. The continuous residence requirement is likewise consistent
with legislative judgments that extended periods of continuous residence are
indicative of strong family and community ties. See IRCA, Pub. L. No. 99-603,
§ 201(a), 100 Stat. 3359, 3394 (1986) (codified as amended at 8 U.S.C.
§ 1255a(a)(2)) (granting lawful status to certain aliens unlawfully present in the
United States since January 1, 1982); id. § 302(a) (codified as amended at
8 U.S.C. § 1160) (granting similar relief to certain agricultural workers); H.R.
Rep. No. 99-682, pt. 1, at 49 (1986) (stating that aliens present in the United
States for five years “have become a part of their communities[,] . . . have strong
family ties here which include U.S. citizens and lawful residents[,] . . . have
built social networks in this country[, and] . . . have contributed to the United
States in myriad ways”); S. Rep. No. 99-132, at 16 (1985) (deporting aliens who
“have become well settled in this country” would be a “wasteful use of the
Immigration and Naturalization Service’s limited enforcement resources”); see
also Arizona, 132 S. Ct. at 2499 (noting that “[t]he equities of an individual
case” turn on factors “including whether the alien has . . . long ties to the
community”).
We also do not believe DHS’s proposed program amounts to an abdication of
its statutory responsibilities, or a legislative rule overriding the commands of the
statute. As discussed earlier, DHS’s severe resource constraints mean that, unless
circumstances change, it could not as a practical matter remove the vast majority
of removable aliens present in the United States. The fact that the proposed
program would defer the removal of a subset of these removable aliens—a subset
that ranks near the bottom of the list of the agency’s removal priorities—thus does
not, by itself, demonstrate that the program amounts to an abdication of DHS’s
responsibilities. And the case-by-case discretion given to immigration officials
under DHS’s proposed program alleviates potential concerns that DHS has

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abdicated its statutory enforcement responsibilities with respect to, or created a
categorical, rule-like entitlement to immigration relief for, the particular class of
aliens eligible for the program. An alien who meets all the criteria for deferred
action under the program would receive deferred action only if he or she “present[ed] no other factors that, in the exercise of discretion,” would “make[] the
grant of deferred action inappropriate.” Johnson Deferred Action Memorandum
at 4. The proposed policy does not specify what would count as such a factor; it
thus leaves the relevant USCIS official with substantial discretion to determine
whether a grant of deferred action is warranted. In other words, even if an alien is
not a removal priority under the proposed policy discussed in Part I, has continuously resided in the United States since before January 1, 2010, is physically
present in the country, and is a parent of an LPR or a U.S. citizen, the USCIS
official evaluating the alien’s deferred action application must still make a
judgment, in the exercise of her discretion, about whether that alien presents any
other factor that would make a grant of deferred action inappropriate. This feature
of the proposed program ensures that it does not create a categorical entitlement to
deferred action that could raise concerns that DHS is either impermissibly
attempting to rewrite or categorically declining to enforce the law with respect to a
particular group of undocumented aliens.
Finally, the proposed deferred action program would resemble in material
respects the kinds of deferred action programs Congress has implicitly approved in
the past, which provides some indication that the proposal is consonant not only
with interests reflected in immigration law as a general matter, but also with
congressional understandings about the permissible uses of deferred action. As
noted above, the program uses deferred action as an interim measure for a group
of aliens to whom Congress has given a prospective entitlement to lawful immigration status. While Congress has provided a path to lawful status for the parents
of U.S. citizens and LPRs, the process of obtaining that status “takes time.”
Cuellar de Osorio, 134 S. Ct. at 2199. The proposed program would provide a
mechanism for families to remain together, depending on their circumstances, for
some or all of the intervening period.14 Immigration officials have on several
14
DHS’s proposed program would likely not permit all potentially eligible parents to remain
together with their children for the entire duration of the time until a visa is awarded. In particular,
undocumented parents of adult citizens who are physically present in the country would be ineligible to
adjust their status without first leaving the country if they had never been “inspected and admitted or
paroled into the United States.” 8 U.S.C. § 1255(a) (permitting the Attorney General to adjust to
permanent resident status certain aliens present in the United States if they become eligible for
immigrant visas). They would thus need to leave the country to obtain a visa at a U.S. consulate
abroad. See id. § 1201(a); Cuellar de Osorio, 134 S. Ct. at 2197–99. But once such parents left the
country, they would in most instances become subject to the 3- or 10-year bar under 8 U.S.C.
§ 1182(a)(9)(B)(i) and therefore unable to obtain a visa unless they remained outside the country for
the duration of the bar. DHS’s proposed program would nevertheless enable other families to stay
together without regard to the 3- or 10-year bar. And even as to those families with parents who would
become subject to that bar, the proposed deferred action program would have the effect of reducing the

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occasions deployed deferred action programs as interim measures for other classes
of aliens with prospective entitlements to lawful immigration status, including
VAWA self-petitioners, bona fide T and U visa applicants, certain immediate
family members of certain U.S. citizens killed in combat, and certain immediate
family members of aliens killed on September 11, 2001. As noted above, each of
these programs has received Congress’s implicit approval—and, indeed, in the
case of VAWA self-petitioners, a direction to expand the program beyond its
original bounds. See supra pp. 18–20.15 In addition, much like these and other
programs Congress has implicitly endorsed, the program serves substantial and
particularized humanitarian interests. Removing the parents of U.S. citizens and
LPRs—that is, of children who have established permanent legal ties to the United
States—would separate them from their nuclear families, potentially for many
years, until they were able to secure visas through the path Congress has provided.
During that time, both the parents and their U.S. citizen or LPR children would be
deprived of both the economic support and the intangible benefits that families
provide.
We recognize that the proposed program would likely differ in size from these
prior deferred action programs. Although DHS has indicated that there is no
reliable way to know how many eligible aliens would actually apply for or would
be likely to receive deferred action following individualized consideration under
the proposed program, it has informed us that approximately 4 million individuals
could be eligible to apply. See Shahoulian E-mail. We have thus considered
whether the size of the program alone sets it at odds with congressional policy or
the Executive’s duties under the Take Care Clause. In the absence of express
statutory guidance, it is difficult to say exactly how the program’s potential size
bears on its permissibility as an exercise of executive enforcement discretion. But
because the size of DHS’s proposed program corresponds to the size of a population to which Congress has granted a prospective entitlement to lawful status

amount of time the family had to spend apart, and could enable them to adjust the timing of their
separation according to, for example, their children’s needs for care and support.
15
Several extended voluntary departure programs have been animated by a similar rationale, and
the most prominent of these programs also received Congress’s implicit approval. In particular, as
noted above, the Family Fairness policy, implemented in 1990, authorized granting extended voluntary
departure and work authorization to the estimated 1.5 million spouses and children of aliens granted
legal status under IRCA—aliens who would eventually “acquire lawful permanent resident status” and
be able to petition on behalf of their family members. Family Fairness Memorandum at 1; see supra
pp. 14–15. Later that year, Congress granted the beneficiaries of the Family Fairness program an
indefinite stay of deportation. See Immigration Act of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-649, § 301, 104 Stat.
4978, 5030. Although it did not make that grant of relief effective for nearly a year, Congress clarified
that “the delay in effectiveness of this section shall not be construed as reflecting a Congressional
belief that the existing family fairness program should be modified in any way before such date.” Id.
§ 301(g). INS’s policies for qualifying Third Preference visa applicants and nurses eligible for H-1
nonimmigrant status likewise extended to aliens with prospective entitlements to lawful status. See
supra p. 14.

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without numerical restriction, it seems to us difficult to sustain an argument, based
on numbers alone, that DHS’s proposal to grant a limited form of administrative
relief as a temporary interim measure exceeds its enforcement discretion under the
INA. Furthermore, while the potential size of the program is large, it is nevertheless only a fraction of the approximately 11 million undocumented aliens who
remain in the United States each year because DHS lacks the resources to remove
them; and, as we have indicated, the program is limited to individuals who would
be unlikely to be removed under DHS’s proposed prioritization policy. There is
thus little practical danger that the program, simply by virtue of its size, will
impede removals that would otherwise occur in its absence. And although we are
aware of no prior exercises of deferred action of the size contemplated here, INS’s
1990 Family Fairness policy, which Congress later implicitly approved, made a
comparable fraction of undocumented aliens—approximately four in ten—
potentially eligible for discretionary extended voluntary departure relief. Compare
CRS Immigration Report at 22 (estimating the Family Fairness policy extended to
1.5 million undocumented aliens), with Office of Policy and Planning, INS,
Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United
States: 1990 to 2000 at 10 (2003) (estimating an undocumented alien population
of 3.5 million in 1990); see supra notes 5 & 15 (discussing extended voluntary
departure and Congress’s implicit approval of the Family Fairness policy). This
suggests that DHS’s proposed deferred action program is not, simply by virtue of
its relative size, inconsistent with what Congress has previously considered a
permissible exercise of enforcement discretion in the immigration context.
In light of these considerations, we believe the proposed expansion of deferred
action to the parents of U.S. citizens and LPRs is lawful. It reflects considerations—responding to resource constraints and to particularized humanitarian
concerns arising in the immigration context—that fall within DHS’s expertise. It is
consistent with congressional policy, since it focuses on a group—law-abiding
parents of lawfully present children who have substantial ties to the community—
that Congress itself has granted favorable treatment in the immigration process.
The program provides for the exercise of case-by-case discretion, thereby avoiding
creating a rule-like entitlement to immigration relief or abdicating DHS’s enforcement responsibilities for a particular class of aliens. And, like several
deferred action programs Congress has approved in the past, the proposed program
provides interim relief that would prevent particularized harm that could otherwise
befall both the beneficiaries of the program and their families. We accordingly
conclude that the proposed program would constitute a permissible exercise of
DHS’s enforcement discretion under the INA.
2.
We now turn to the proposed deferred action program for the parents of DACA
recipients. The relevant considerations are, to a certain extent, similar to those

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discussed above: Like the program for the parents of U.S. citizens and LPRs, the
proposed program for parents of DACA recipients would respond to severe
resource constraints that dramatically limit DHS’s ability to remove aliens who are
unlawfully present, and would be limited to individuals who would be unlikely to
be removed under DHS’s proposed prioritization policy. And like the proposed
program for LPRs and U.S. citizens, the proposed program for DACA parents
would preserve a significant measure of case-by-case discretion not to award
deferred action even if the general eligibility criteria are satisfied.
But the proposed program for parents of DACA recipients is unlike the proposed program for parents of U.S. citizens and LPRs in two critical respects. First,
although DHS justifies the proposed program in large part based on considerations
of family unity, the parents of DACA recipients are differently situated from the
parents of U.S. citizens and LPRs under the family-related provisions of the
immigration law. Many provisions of the INA reflect Congress’s general concern
with not separating individuals who are legally entitled to live in the United States
from their immediate family members. See, e.g., 8 U.S.C. § 1151(b)(2)(A)(i)
(permitting citizens to petition for parents, spouses and children); id.
§ 1229b(b)(1) (allowing cancellation of removal for relatives of citizens and
LPRs). But the immigration laws do not express comparable concern for uniting
persons who lack lawful status (or prospective lawful status) in the United States
with their families. DACA recipients unquestionably lack lawful status in the
United States. See DACA Toolkit at 8 (“Deferred action . . . does not provide you
with a lawful status.”). Although they may presumptively remain in the United
States, at least for the duration of the grant of deferred action, that grant is both
time-limited and contingent, revocable at any time in the agency’s discretion.
Extending deferred action to the parents of DACA recipients would therefore
expand family-based immigration relief in a manner that deviates in important
respects from the immigration system Congress has enacted and the policies that
system embodies.
Second, as it has been described to us, the proposed deferred action program
for the parents of DACA recipients would represent a significant departure from
deferred action programs that Congress has implicitly approved in the past.
Granting deferred action to the parents of DACA recipients would not operate as
an interim measure for individuals to whom Congress has given a prospective
entitlement to lawful status. Such parents have no special prospect of obtaining
visas, since Congress has not enabled them to self-petition—as it has for VAWA
self-petitioners and individuals eligible for T or U visas—or enabled their
undocumented children to petition for visas on their behalf. Nor would granting
deferred action to parents of DACA recipients, at least in the absence of other
factors, serve interests that are comparable to those that have prompted implementation of deferred action programs in the past. Family unity is, as we have
discussed, a significant humanitarian concern that underlies many provisions of
the INA. But a concern with furthering family unity alone would not justify the

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proposed program, because in the absence of any family member with lawful
status in the United States, it would not explain why that concern should be
satisfied by permitting family members to remain in the United States. The
decision to grant deferred action to DACA parents thus seems to depend critically
on the earlier decision to make deferred action available to their children. But we
are aware of no precedent for using deferred action in this way, to respond to
humanitarian needs rooted in earlier exercises of deferred action. The logic
underlying such an expansion does not have a clear stopping point: It would
appear to argue in favor of extending relief not only to parents of DACA recipients, but also to the close relatives of any alien granted deferred action through
DACA or any other program, those relatives’ close relatives, and perhaps the
relatives (and relatives’ relatives) of any alien granted any form of discretionary
relief from removal by the Executive.
For these reasons, the proposed deferred action program for the parents of
DACA recipients is meaningfully different from the proposed program for the
parents of U.S. citizens and LPRs. It does not sound in Congress’s concern for
maintaining the integrity of families of individuals legally entitled to live in the
United States. And unlike prior deferred action programs in which Congress has
acquiesced, it would treat the Executive’s prior decision to extend deferred action
to one population as justifying the extension of deferred action to additional
populations. DHS, of course, remains free to consider whether to grant deferred
action to individual parents of DACA recipients on an ad hoc basis. But in the
absence of clearer indications that the proposed class-based deferred action
program for DACA parents would be consistent with the congressional policies
and priorities embodied in the immigration laws, we conclude that it would not be
permissible.
III.
In sum, for the reasons set forth above, we conclude that DHS’s proposed
prioritization policy and its proposed deferred action program for parents of U.S.
citizens and lawful permanent residents would be legally permissible, but that the
proposed deferred action program for parents of DACA recipients would not be
permissible.
KARL R. THOMPSON
Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney General
Office of Legal Counsel

33

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Exhibit 5

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Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 125 of 137

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Exhibit 6

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June 29, 2017

The Honorable Jeff Sessions
Attorney General of the United States
U.S. Department of Justice
950 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20530-0001
Re:

Texas, et al. v. United States, et al., No. 1:14-cv-00254 (S.D. Tex.)

Dear Attorney General Sessions:
The State plaintiffs that successfully challenged the Obama Administration’s DAPA
and Expanded DACA programs commend the Secretary of Homeland Security for
issuing his June 15, 2017 memorandum rescinding, in large part, his predecessor’s
November 20, 2014 memorandum creating those DAPA and Expanded DACA
programs.
As you know, this November 20, 2014 memorandum creating DAPA and Expanded
DACA would have granted eligibility for lawful presence and work authorization to
over four million unlawfully present aliens. Courts blocked DAPA and Expanded
DACA from going into effect, holding that the Executive Branch does not have the
unilateral power to confer lawful presence and work authorization on unlawfully
present aliens simply because the Executive chooses not to remove them. Rather, “[i]n
specific and detailed provisions, the [Immigration and Nationality Act] expressly and
carefully provides legal designations allowing defined classes of aliens to be lawfully
present.” Texas v. United States, 809 F.3d 134, 179 (5th Cir. 2015), aff’d by an equally
divided court, 136 S. Ct. 2271 (2016) (per curiam). “Entirely absent from those specific
classes is the group of 4.3 million illegal aliens who would be eligible for lawful
presence under DAPA.” Id. Likewise, “[t]he INA also specifies classes of aliens eligible
and ineligible for work authorization . . . with no mention of the class of persons whom
DAPA would make eligible for work authorization.” Id. at 180-81. Thus, “DAPA is not
authorized by statute,” id. at 184, and “DAPA is foreclosed by Congress’s careful
plan,” id. at 186.

P os t Of fic e B ox 12548 , Aust in, Texa s 7 8 7 1 1 - 2 5 4 8 • ( 5 1 2 ) 4 6 3 - 2 1 0 0 • www. t exa satt or n eygen era l. gov

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For these same reasons that DAPA and Expanded DACA’s unilateral Executive
Branch conferral of eligibility for lawful presence and work authorization was
unlawful, the original June 15, 2012 DACA memorandum is also unlawful. The
original 2012 DACA program covers over one million otherwise unlawfully present
aliens. Id. at 147. And just like DAPA, DACA unilaterally confers eligibility for work
authorization, id., and lawful presence without any statutory authorization from
Congress. 1
Nevertheless, the Secretary of Homeland Security’s June 15, 2017 memorandum
provided that “[t]he June 15, 2012 DACA memorandum, however, will remain in
effect,” and some “Expanded DACA” permits will also remain in effect.
We respectfully request that the Secretary of Homeland Security phase out the DACA
program. Specifically, we request that the Secretary of Homeland Security rescind
the June 15, 2012 DACA memorandum and order that the Executive Branch will not
renew or issue any new DACA or Expanded DACA permits in the future. This request
does not require the Executive Branch to immediately rescind DACA or Expanded
DACA permits that have already been issued. This request does not require the
Secretary to alter the immigration enforcement priorities contained in his separate
February 20, 2017 memorandum. 2 And this request does not require the federal
government to remove any alien.
If, by September 5, 2017, the Executive Branch agrees to rescind the June 15, 2012
DACA memorandum and not to renew or issue any new DACA or Expanded DACA
permits in the future, then the plaintiffs that successfully challenged DAPA and
Expanded DACA will voluntarily dismiss their lawsuit currently pending in the
Southern District of Texas. Otherwise, the complaint in that case will be amended to
challenge both the DACA program and the remaining Expanded DACA permits.

See, e.g., USCIS, DACA Frequently Asked Questions,
https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/consideration-deferred-action-childhoodarrivals-process/frequently-asked-questions (last visited June 29, 2017) (DACA
recipients “are considered to be lawfully present”).
1

See DHS, Enforcement of Immigration Laws to Serve the National Interest,
https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/17_0220_S1_Enforcement-ofthe-Immigration-Laws-to-Serve-the-National-Interest.pdf.

2

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We appreciate the opportunity to continue working with you, and the entire
Presidential Administration, to cooperatively enforce federal immigration laws.
Sincerely,

Ken Paxton
Attorney General of Texas

Steve Marshall
Attorney General of Alabama

Leslie Rutledge
Attorney General of Arkansas

Jeff Landry
Attorney General of Louisiana

Doug Peterson
Attorney General of Nebraska

Alan Wilson
Attorney General of South Carolina

Lawrence G. Wasden
Attorney General of Idaho

Herbert Slatery III
Attorney General and Reporter of
Tennessee

C.L. “Butch” Otter
Governor of Idaho

Patrick Morrisey
Attorney General of West Virginia

Derek Schmidt
Attorney General of Kansas

P os t Of fic e B ox 12548 , Aust in, Texa s 7 8 7 1 1 - 2 5 4 8 • ( 5 1 2 ) 4 6 3 - 2 1 0 0 • www. t exa satt or n eygen era l. gov

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Exhibit 7

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Official website of the Department of Homeland Security

U.S. Department of
Homeland Security

Archived Content
In an effort to keep DHS.gov current, the archive contains outdated information that may
not reflect current policy or programs.

Memorandum on Rescission Of
Deferred Action For Childhood
Arrivals (DACA)
Release Date:  September 5, 2017
MEMORANDUM FOR:
James W. McCament
Acting Director
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
Thomas D. Homan
Acting Director
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Kevin K. McAleenan
Acting Commissioner
U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Joseph B. Maher
Acting General Counsel
Ambassador James D. Nealon
Assistant Secretary, International Engagement

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 133 of 137

Julie M. Kirchner
Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman
FROM:
Elaine C. Duke
Acting Secretary
SUBJECT:
Rescission of the June 15, 2012 Memorandum Entitled “Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion
with Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United States as Children”
This memorandum rescinds the June 15, 2012 memorandum entitled “Exercising
Prosecutorial Discretion with Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United States as
Children,” which established the program known as Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals
(“DACA”). For the reasons and in the manner outlined below, Department of Homeland
Security personnel shall take all appropriate actions to execute a wind-down of the program,
consistent with the parameters established in this memorandum.

Background
The Department of Homeland Security established DACA through the issuance of a
memorandum on June 15, 2012. The program purported to use deferred action—an act of
prosecutorial discretion meant to be applied only on an individualized case-by-case basis—to
confer certain benefits to illegal aliens that Congress had not otherwise acted to provide by
law.[1] (# ftn1) Specifically, DACA provided certain illegal aliens who entered the United States

before the age of sixteen a period of deferred action and eligibility to request employment
authorization.
On November 20, 2014, the Department issued a new memorandum, expanding the
parameters of DACA and creating a new policy called Deferred Action for Parents of Americans
and Lawful Permanent Residents (“DAPA”). Among other things—such as the expansion of the
coverage criteria under the 2012 DACA policy to encompass aliens with a wider range of ages
and arrival dates, and lengthening the period of deferred action and work authorization from
two years to three—the November 20, 2014 memorandum directed USCIS “to establish a
process, similar to DACA, for exercising prosecutorial discretion through the use of deferred
action, on a case-by-case basis,” to certain aliens who have “a son or daughter who is a U.S.
citizen or lawful permanent resident.” 

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Prior to the implementation of DAPA, twenty-six states—led by Texas—challenged the policies
announced in the November 20, 2014 memorandum in the U.S. District Court for the Southern
District of Texas. In an order issued on February 16, 2015, the district court preliminarily
enjoined the policies nationwide.[2] (# ftn2) The district court held that the plaintiff states were

likely to succeed on their claim that the DAPA program did not comply with relevant
authorities.
The United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit affirmed, holding that Texas and the
other states had demonstrated a substantial likelihood of success on the merits and satisfied
the other requirements for a preliminary injunction.[3] (#_ftn3) The Fifth Circuit concluded that
the Department’s DAPA policy conflicted with the discretion authorized by Congress. In
considering the DAPA program, the court noted that the Immigration and Nationality Act
“flatly does not permit the reclassification of millions of illegal aliens as lawfully present and
thereby make them newly eligible for a host of federal and state benefits, including work
authorization.” According to the court, “DAPA is foreclosed by Congress’s careful plan; the
program is ‘manifestly contrary to the statute’ and therefore was properly enjoined.” 
Although the original DACA policy was not challenged in the lawsuit, both the district and
appellate court decisions relied on factual findings about the implementation of the 2012
DACA memorandum. The Fifth Circuit agreed with the lower court that DACA decisions were
not truly discretionary,[4] (#_ftn4) and that DAPA and expanded DACA would be substantially
similar in execution. Both the district court and the Fifth Circuit concluded that
implementation of the program did not comply with the Administrative Procedure Act
because the Department did not implement it through notice-and-comment rulemaking. 
The Supreme Court affirmed the Fifth Circuit’s ruling by equally divided vote (4-4).[5] (#

ftn5)

The evenly divided ruling resulted in the Fifth Circuit order being affirmed. The preliminary
injunction therefore remains in place today. In October 2016, the Supreme Court denied a
request from DHS to rehear the case upon the appointment of a new Justice. After the 2016
election, both parties agreed to a stay in litigation to allow the new administration to review
these issues.
On January 25, 2017, President Trump issued Executive Order No. 13,768, “Enhancing Public
Safety in the Interior of the United States.” In that Order, the President directed federal
agencies to “[e]nsure the faithful execution of the immigration laws . . . against all removable
aliens,” and established new immigration enforcement priorities. On February 20, 2017, then
Secretary of Homeland Security John F. Kelly issued an implementing memorandum, stating
“the Department no longer will exempt classes or categories of removable aliens from
potential enforcement,” except as provided in the Department’s June 15, 2012 memorandum

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establishing DACA,[6] (# ftn6) and the November 20, 2014 memorandum establishing DAPA and

expanding DACA.[7] (#_ftn7)
On June 15, 2017, after consulting with the Attorney General, and considering the likelihood of
success on the merits of the ongoing litigation, then Secretary John F. Kelly issued a
memorandum rescinding DAPA and the expansion of DACA—but temporarily left in place the
June 15, 2012 memorandum that initially created the DACA program.
Then, on June 29, 2017, Texas, along with several other states, sent a letter to Attorney
General Sessions asserting that the original 2012 DACA memorandum is unlawful for the same
reasons stated in the Fifth Circuit and district court opinions regarding DAPA and expanded
DACA. The letter notes that if DHS does not rescind the DACA memo by September 5, 2017, the
States will seek to amend the DAPA lawsuit to include a challenge to DACA.
The Attorney General sent a letter to the Department on September 4, 2017, articulating his
legal determination that DACA “was effectuated by the previous administration through
executive action, without proper statutory authority and with no established end-date, after
Congress' repeated rejection of proposed legislation that would have accomplished a similar
result. Such an open-ended circumvention of immigration laws was an unconstitutional
exercise of authority by the Executive Branch.” The letter further stated that because DACA
“has the same legal and constitutional defects that the courts recognized as to DAPA, it is
likely that potentially imminent litigation would yield similar results with respect to DACA.”
Nevertheless, in light of the administrative complexities associated with ending the program,
he recommended that the Department wind it down in an efficient and orderly fashion, and
his office has reviewed the terms on which our Department will do so.

Rescission of the June 15, 2012 DACA Memorandum
Taking into consideration the Supreme Court’s and the Fifth Circuit’s rulings in the ongoing
litigation, and the September 4, 2017 letter from the Attorney General, it is clear that the June
15, 2012 DACA program should be terminated. In the exercise of my authority in establishing
national immigration policies and priorities, except for the purposes explicitly identified
below, I hereby rescind the June 15, 2012 memorandum.
Recognizing the complexities associated with winding down the program, the Department will
provide a limited window in which it will adjudicate certain requests for DACA and associated
applications meeting certain parameters specified below. Accordingly, effective immediately,
the Department:
Will adjudicate—on an individual, case-by-case basis—properly filed pending DACA
initial requests and associated applications for Employment Authorization Documents

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 136 of 137

that have been accepted by the Department as of the date of this memorandum.
Will reject all DACA initial requests and associated applications for Employment
Authorization Documents filed after the date of this memorandum.
Will adjudicate—on an individual, case by case basis—properly filed pending DACA
renewal requests and associated applications for Employment Authorization
Documents from current beneficiaries that have been accepted by the Department as
of the date of this memorandum, and from current beneficiaries whose benefits will
expire between the date of this memorandum and March 5, 2018 that have been
accepted by the Department as of October 5, 2017.
Will reject all DACA renewal requests and associated applications for Employment
Authorization Documents filed outside of the parameters specified above.
Will not terminate the grants of previously issued deferred action or revoke
Employment Authorization Documents solely based on the directives in this
memorandum for the remaining duration of their validity periods.
Will not approve any new Form I-131 applications for advance parole under
standards associated with the DACA program, although it will generally honor the
stated validity period for previously approved applications for advance parole.
Notwithstanding the continued validity of advance parole approvals previously
granted, CBP will—of course—retain the authority it has always had and exercised in
determining the admissibility of any person presenting at the border and the eligibility
of such persons for parole. Further, USCIS will—of course—retain the authority to
revoke or terminate an advance parole document at any time.
Will administratively close all pending Form I-131 applications for advance parole
filed under standards associated with the DACA program, and will refund all associated
fees.
Will continue to exercise its discretionary authority to terminate or deny deferred
action at any time when immigration officials determine termination or denial of
deferred action is appropriate.
This document is not intended to, does not, and may not be relied upon to create any right or
benefit, substantive or procedural, enforceable at law by any party in any administrative, civil,
or criminal matter. Likewise, no limitations are placed by this guidance on the otherwise
lawful enforcement or litigation prerogatives of DHS.

[1] (#

ftnref1) Significantly, while the DACA denial notice indicates the decision to deny is made

in the unreviewable discretion of USCIS, USCIS has not been able to identify specific denial
cases where an applicant appeared to satisfy the programmatic categorical criteria as

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 137 of 137

outlined in the June 15, 2012 memorandum, but still had his or her application denied based
solely upon discretion.

[2] (#

ftnref2) Texas v. United States, 86 F. Supp. 3d 591 (S.D. Tex. 2015). 

[3] (#_ftnref3) Texas v. United States, 809 F.3d 134 (5th Cir. 2015).
[4] (#

ftnref4) Id. 

[5] (#

ftnref5) United States v. Texas, 136 S. Ct. 2271 (2016) (per curiam). 

[6] (#

ftnref6) Memorandum from Janet Napolitano, Secretary, DHS to David Aguilar, Acting

Comm’r, CBP, et al., “Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion with Respect to Individuals Who
Came to the United States as Children” (June 15, 2012).
[7] (#

ftnref7) Memorandum from Jeh Johnson, Secretary, DHS, to Leon Rodriguez, Dir., USCIS,

et al., “Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion with Respect to Individuals Who Came to the United
States as Children and with Respect to Certain Individuals Whose Parents are U.S. Citizens or
Permanent Residents” (Nov. 20, 2014).
Topics:  Border Security (/topics/border-security) , Deferred Action (/topics/deferred-action)
Keywords:  DACA (/keywords/daca) , Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (/keywords/deferred-action-childhood-arrivals)
Last Published Date: September 5, 2017

JS 44 (Rev. 06/17)

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1-1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 1 of 3

CIVIL COVER SHEET

The JS 44 civil cover sheet and the information contained herein neither replace nor supplement the filing and service of pleadings or other papers as required by law, except as
provided by local rules of court. This form, approved by the Judicial Conference of the United States in September 1974, is required for the use of the Clerk of Court for the
purpose of initiating the civil docket sheet. (SEE INSTRUCTIONS ON NEXT PAGE OF THIS FORM.)

I. (a) PLAINTIFFS

State of Texas; State of Alabama; State of Arkansas; State of Louisiana;
State of Nebraska; State of South Carolina; State of West Virginia

(b) County of Residence of First Listed Plaintiff

Cameron County

DEFENDANTS

United States of America, et al.
** See attached
County of Residence of First Listed Defendant

(EXCEPT IN U.S. PLAINTIFF CASES)
NOTE:

(c) Attorneys (Firm Name, Address, and Telephone Number)

Attorneys (If Known)

Todd Lawrence Disher
Office of the Attorney General of Texas, PO Box 12548
Austin, Texas 78711-2548 / [phone] ** See attached

II. BASIS OF JURISDICTION (Place an “X” in One Box Only)
1

2

U.S. Government
Plaintiff

3

U.S. Government
Defendant

4

(IN U.S. PLAINTIFF CASES ONLY)
IN LAND CONDEMNATION CASES, USE THE LOCATION OF
THE TRACT OF LAND INVOLVED.

Ryan K. Patrick, United States Attorney for the Southern District of
Texas

III. CITIZENSHIP OF PRINCIPAL PARTIES (Place an “X” in One Box for Plaintiff
(For Diversity Cases Only)
PTF
Citizen of This State
1

Federal Question
(U.S. Government Not a Party)

Diversity
(Indicate Citizenship of Parties in Item III)

DEF
1

and One Box for Defendant)
PTF
DEF
Incorporated or Principal Place
4
4
of Business In This State

Citizen of Another State

2

2

Incorporated and Principal Place
of Business In Another State

5

5

Citizen or Subject of a
Foreign Country

3

3

Foreign Nation

6

6

IV. NATURE OF SUIT (Place an “X” in One Box Only)
CONTRACT

Click here for: Nature of Suit Code Descriptions.

TORTS

110 Insurance
120 Marine
130 Miller Act
140 Negotiable Instrument
150 Recovery of Overpayment
& Enforcement of Judgment
151 Medicare Act
152 Recovery of Defaulted
Student Loans
(Excludes Veterans)
153 Recovery of Overpayment
of Veteran’s Benefits
160 Stockholders’ Suits
190 Other Contract
195 Contract Product Liability
196 Franchise

REAL PROPERTY
210 Land Condemnation
220 Foreclosure
230 Rent Lease & Ejectment
240 Torts to Land
245 Tort Product Liability
290 All Other Real Property

PERSONAL INJURY
310 Airplane
315 Airplane Product
Liability
320 Assault, Libel &
Slander
330 Federal Employers’
Liability
340 Marine
345 Marine Product
Liability
350 Motor Vehicle
355 Motor Vehicle
Product Liability
360 Other Personal
Injury
362 Personal Injury Medical Malpractice
CIVIL RIGHTS
440 Other Civil Rights
441 Voting
442 Employment
443 Housing/
Accommodations
445 Amer. w/Disabilities Employment
446 Amer. w/Disabilities Other
448 Education

FORFEITURE/PENALTY

PERSONAL INJURY
365 Personal Injury Product Liability
367 Health Care/
Pharmaceutical
Personal Injury
Product Liability
368 Asbestos Personal
Injury Product
Liability
PERSONAL PROPERTY
370 Other Fraud
371 Truth in Lending
380 Other Personal
Property Damage
385 Property Damage
Product Liability
PRISONER PETITIONS
Habeas Corpus:
463 Alien Detainee
510 Motions to Vacate
Sentence
530 General
535 Death Penalty
Other:
540 Mandamus & Other
550 Civil Rights
555 Prison Condition
560 Civil Detainee Conditions of
Confinement

625 Drug Related Seizure
of Property 21 USC 881
690 Other

LABOR
710 Fair Labor Standards
Act
720 Labor/Management
Relations
740 Railway Labor Act
751 Family and Medical
Leave Act
790 Other Labor Litigation
791 Employee Retirement
Income Security Act

BANKRUPTCY
422 Appeal 28 USC 158
423 Withdrawal
28 USC 157
PROPERTY RIGHTS
820 Copyrights
830 Patent
835 Patent - Abbreviated
New Drug Application
840 Trademark
SOCIAL SECURITY
861 HIA (1395ff)
862 Black Lung (923)
863 DIWC/DIWW (405(g))
864 SSID Title XVI
865 RSI (405(g))

FEDERAL TAX SUITS
870 Taxes (U.S. Plaintiff
or Defendant)
871 IRS—Third Party
26 USC 7609

IMMIGRATION
462 Naturalization Application
465 Other Immigration
Actions

OTHER STATUTES
375 False Claims Act
376 Qui Tam (31 USC
3729(a))
400 State Reapportionment
410 Antitrust
430 Banks and Banking
450 Commerce
460 Deportation
470 Racketeer Influenced and
Corrupt Organizations
480 Consumer Credit
490 Cable/Sat TV
850 Securities/Commodities/
Exchange
890 Other Statutory Actions
891 Agricultural Acts
893 Environmental Matters
895 Freedom of Information
Act
896 Arbitration
899 Administrative Procedure
Act/Review or Appeal of
Agency Decision
950 Constitutionality of
State Statutes

V. ORIGIN (Place an “X” in One Box Only)
1 Original
Proceeding

2 Removed from
State Court

3

Remanded from
Appellate Court

4 Reinstated or
Reopened

5 Transferred from
Another District

6 Multidistrict
Litigation Transfer
(specify)
Cite the U.S. Civil Statute under which you are filing (Do not cite jurisdictional statutes unless diversity):

8 Multidistrict
Litigation Direct File

Administrative Procedure Act, 5 U.S.C. 551, et seq

VI. CAUSE OF ACTION Brief description of cause:

Plaintiffs are suing the United States and federal officials for violations of the Take Care Clause and the APA

VII. REQUESTED IN
COMPLAINT:
VIII. RELATED CASE(S)
IF ANY
DATE

CHECK IF THIS IS A CLASS ACTION
UNDER RULE 23, F.R.Cv.P.
(See instructions):

CHECK YES only if demanded in complaint:
Yes
No
JURY DEMAND:

DEMAND $

JUDGE Andrew S. Hanen

DOCKET NUMBER 1:14-cv-00254 (S.D. Tex.)

SIGNATURE OF ATTORNEY OF RECORD

/s/ Todd L. Disher

05/01/2018
FOR OFFICE USE ONLY
RECEIPT #

AMOUNT

APPLYING IFP

JUDGE

MAG. JUDGE

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1-1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 2 of 3

State of Texas, et al., v. United States of America, et al.
In the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas,
Brownsville Division
Attachment to Civil Cover Sheet: Names of Parties
PLAINTIFFS
State of Texas
State of Alabama
State of Arkansas
State of Louisiana
State of Nebraska
State of South Carolina
State of West Virgina

DEFENDANTS
United States of America
U.S. Department of Homeland Security;
Kirstjen M. Nielsen, Secretary
U.S. Customs and Border Protection;
Kevin K. McAleenan, Commissioner
U.S. Immigration and Customs
Enforcement; Thomas D. Homan,
Deputy Director and Acting Director
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration
Services; L. Francis Cissna, Director
U.S. Border Patrol; Carla L. Provost,
Acting Chief

Case 1:18-cv-00068 Document 1-1 Filed in TXSD on 05/01/18 Page 3 of 3

State of Texas, et al., v. United States of America, et al.
In the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas,
Brownsville Division

Attachment to Civil Cover Sheet: Plaintiffs’ Attorneys

STEVE MARSHALL
Attorney General of Alabama

KEN PAXTON
Attorney General of Texas

LESLIE RUTLEDGE
Attorney General of Arkansas

JEFFREY C. MATEER
First Assistant Attorney General

JEFF LANDRY
Attorney General of Louisiana

ALAN WILSON
Attorney General of South Carolina

BRANTLEY STARR
Deputy First Assistant Attorney General
Tx. State Bar No. 24046904
Southern District of Texas No. 2972033
Tel.: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
[e-mail]
P.O. Box 12548
Austin, Texas 78711-2548

PATRICK MORRISEY
Attorney General of West Virginia

JAMES E. DAVIS
Deputy Attorney General for Civil Litigation

TODD LAWRENCE DISHER
Attorney-in-Charge
Special Counsel for Civil Litigation
Tx. State Bar No. 24081854
Southern District of Texas No. 2985472
Tel.: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
[e-mail]
P.O. Box 12548
Austin, Texas 78711-2548

DOUGLAS J. PETERSON
Attorney General of Nebraska

ADAM ARTHUR BIGGS
Special Counsel for Civil Litigation
Tx. State Bar No. 24077727
Southern District of Texas No. 2964087
Tel.: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
[e-mail]
P.O. Box 12548
Austin, Texas 78711-2548