23andMe, Inc. v. Ancestry.com DNA, LLC et al

Filing 1

COMPLAINT for Patent Infringement, Violations of the Lanham Act, Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code 17200 and 17500, and Declaratory Relief of No Trademark Infringement and Trademark Invalidity; Demand for Jury Trial against All Defendants. (Filing Fee $400.00, Receipt No. 0971-12346102) Filed by 23andMe, Inc.. (Attachments: # 1 Exhibit 1, # 2 Exhibit 2, # 3 Exhibit 3, # 4 Exhibit 4, # 5 Exhibit 5, # 6 Exhibit 6, # 7 Exhibit 7, # 8 Exhibit 8, # 9 Exhibit 9, # 10 Exhibit 10, # 11 Exhibit 11, # 12 Civil Cover Sheet )(Gaede, William) (Filed on 5/11/2018) Modified on 5/11/2018 (jmlS, COURT STAFF). Modified on 5/15/2018 (gbaS, COURT STAFF).

EXHIBIT
4

USOO8463554B2

(12) United States Patent
HOn et al.
(54)

FINDING RELATIVES IN ADATABASE

(75) Inventors: Lawrence Hon. Millbrae, CA (US);
Serge Saxonov, San Mateo, CA (US);
Brian Thomas Naughton, Mountain
View, CA (US); Joanna Louise
Mountain, Menlo Park, CA (US); Anne
Wojcicki, Palo Alto, CA (US); Linda
Avey, Lafayette, CA (US)

(10) Patent No.:
(45) Date of Patent:
(56)

US 8,463,554 B2
Jun. 11, 2013

References Cited
U.S. PATENT DOCUMENTS

2003/0203370 A1

10, 2003 Yakhini et al.

2005, OO64476 A1

3/2005 Huang et al.

2005/0191731 A1
2007/0037182 A1

9, 2005 Judson et al.
2/2007 Gaskin et al.

2008. O154566 A1
2008. O189047 A1

6/2008 Myres et al.
8/2008 Wong et al.

OTHER PUBLICATIONS

(73) Assignee: 23andMe, Inc., Mountain View, CA
(US)
(*) Notice: Subject to any disclaimer, the term of this
patent is extended or adjusted under 35
U.S.C. 154(b) by 506 days.

(Zhao and Liang, 2001, Journal of Computational Biology, vol. 8No.
2 pp. 191-200.*
Blackwell et al. Proceedings / ... International Conference on Intel
ligent Systems for Molecular Biology; ISMB. International Confer
ence on Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology, (1999) pp.

(21) Appl. No.: 12/644,791

vol. 81, No. 5, pp. 913-926.*
Ning et al., “SSAHA: A Fast Search Method for Large DNA Data
bases”. Genome Research, Oct. 2001; vol. 11, No. 10, pp. 1725-1729.

(22) Filed:
(65)

Dec. 22, 2009
Prior Publication Data

US 2010/0223281 A1

Sep. 2, 2010

54-59.

Chen, M. et. al. American Journal of Human Genetics, Nov. 2007;

* cited by examiner
Primary Examiner — Mary Zeman
(74) Attorney, Agent, or Firm — Van Pelt, Yi & James LLP
(57)

Related U.S. Application Data
(60) Provisional application No. 61/204,195, filed on Dec.
31, 2008.

(51)
(52)

information of the first user and recombinable DNA informa

Int. C.

G06F 7700

(2006.01)

U.S. C.

USPC .................. 702/19, 702/20; 703/11: 707/700

(58)

ABSTRACT

Determining relative relationship includes receiving recom
binable deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) information of a first
user and recombinable DNA information of a second user,
determining, based at least in part on the recombinable DNA

Field of Classification Search
None

See application file for complete search history.

tion of the second user, a predicted degree of relationship
between the first user and the second user, and in the event that

the expected degree of relationship between the first user and
the second user at least meets the threshold, notifying at least
the first user about a relative relationship with the second user.
39 Claims, 15 Drawing Sheets

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 1 of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

100
User
Information

- 110

Relative Finder System

102

U
Client

FIG. 1

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 2 of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

200 N

Receive recombinable DNA information of
a first user and recombinable DNA
information of a second user

Determine a predicted degree of
relationship between the first user and the

204

Second user

Notify at least the first user about a
potential relative relationship with the

206

Second user

Infer relationship between the first user
and the second user based on relationship

208

information associated with a third user

(optional)

210

Infer additional relatives (optional)

FIG. 2

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 3 of 15

Generate an invitation to make a
Connection

US 8,463,554 B2

302

304

Receive an acceptance or declination

NO Action

iwar?
Acceptance received?

Required

306

Make Connection

FIG. 3

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

usTVIEW

Sheet 4 of 15

DiscoveRY VIEW

FILTER PREDICTED RELATIVES: ALL RESULTS (O)
CONTACT
STATUS

US 8,463,554 B2

PREDICTED
RELATIONSHIP

RELATIONSHIP
RANGE

w
PERSONAL DETALS

NO RESULTS
% DNA
SHARED

SHARED
SEGMENTS

SHOW CLOSE RELATIVES

FIG. 4A

LIST VIEW
FILTER PREDICTE
FILTER
CONTACT

STATUS

FORMOREABOUT

DISCOVERY VEW
raa
ABOUT WIEWING CLOSE RELATIVES
INRELATIVE FINDER, ACLOSE RELATIVE ISAPERSON WHO

SHARESENOUGHDNAWITH YOUTO BEAT LEASTAS CLOSELY
RELATED ASA FRST COUSIN. IF YOUREALREADY GENOME
SHARING WITH ACLOSE RELATIVE THEY WILLAUTOMATICALLY

APPEAR IN YOUR RESULTS. OTHERWISE YOUR CLOSE

RELATIVES WILLNOTAPPEAR IN YOURRESULTS UNLESS
THEY"WE ASO CHOSEN TOVIEW CLOSE RELATIVES.

KEEP N MIND.,
THERE ISA CHANCE THAT YOUMIGHT FIND OUTABOUT CLOSE
RELATIVES THAT YOUDIDNT KNOW YOU HAD. FOR SOME

PEOPLE THISCOULDBEWELCOMENEWS. FOR OTHERS,

THIS COULDBE SURPRISING ORUNCOMFORTABLE
INFORMATION.

CONTINUE TO CLOSE RELATIVES I CANCEL

FIG. 4B

NORESULTsRESULTS
O RESU
% DNA

R

SHARED

SEGMENTS

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Dust VIEW

Sheet 5 Of 15

DSCOVERY VEW

FILTER PREDICTED RELATIVES: ALL RESULTS (12)
CONTACT

STATUS

US 8,463,554 B2

PREDICTED

RELATIONSHIP

in MAKE.CONTACT 4TH COUSIN

RESULTS 1-10 OF 12

RELATIONSHIP

RANGE

PERSONALDETAILS

% DNA

SHARED

ses.M.Nis

FEMALE

SR" SR HAPLOGROUP F3 0.19%
MATERNAL

2

FEMALE

CENTRAL ASIAN
irrMAKECONTACT 5TH COUSIN 3RD TO 10TH SR ANCESTRY
MAKE CONTACTU
"ols
3RD TO 10TH

MAKECONTACTJ 5TH COUSIN

"SN

MATERNAL
HAPOGROUP G
MALE
MATERNAL

SR HAPOGROUP G1A
PATERNAL
HAPLOGROUP
B1b1b2a1a2d

- MAKE CONTACT

5TH COUSIN

4TH TO 10TH

COUSIN

MATERNAL

SR HAPLOGROUP R9

s

PATERNAL

HAPLOGROUP
O333C
FEMALE

irMAKECONTACTD 5TH COUSINESS" SR MATERNAL
HAPLOGROUPB

0.09%

1

S. HAPLOGROUP F1a1* 0.09%
PATERNAL

1

MALE

MATERNAL
PATERNAL
HAPLOGROUP O3a
MALE
MATERNAL

5TH COUSN "SS"

HAPLOGROUP O1a1

SHARING GENOMES PARENT OR
SENDAMESSAGE CHILD

-

SR HAPLOGROUPC
SR vana,

FG. 4C

so its 2

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

LIST VIEW

Sheet 6 of 15

DISCOVERY VIEW

FILTER PREDICTED RELATIVES: ALL RESULTS (12)
GRANDPARENT,
PARENT ORCHILD

US 8,463,554 B2

SBLING

GRANDCHILD, OR
HALF-SBLING

RESULTS1-12 OF 12
4TH COUSIN

MALE

SR MATERNAL HAPLOGROUP D461
PATERNAL HAPLOGROUP O3a
PREDICTED RELATIONSHIP 5TH COUSIN

FORMORE ABOUTRELATIN RELATIONSHIPRANGE:4TH TO 10TH COUSIN

D-3 SEND FEEDBACK TO

- MAKE CONTACT

FIG. 4D

5TH COUSIN

TTH COUSIN

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 7 Of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

() O O
MAKE CONTACT
STEP : PERSONALIZE YOUR INTRODUCTION

FILTER PRED
CONTACT

STATUS I PERSONALIZE YOUR INTRODUCTION MESSAGE:
rMAKEC HELLO,

RESULTS 1 - 2 OF 2
% DNA
# SHARED

SHARED SEGMENTS
18.64%

23ANDME HASIDENTIFEED USASPOTENTIAL RELATIVES.

ir MAKEC WOULD YOUBEINTERESTED IN COMMUNICATING FURTHER
TO SEE HOWWEMIGHT BE RELATED?
FORMOREAE

D-3 SEND

(MSHARE MY NAMERELATIVE.
(DANIELLAWRENCERF2) ANDPUBLIC
PROFILE WITH THIS
REMEMBER.

23ANDME DOES NOT REQUIRE YOUTOREVEAL YOUR
IDENTITY OR EMAIL ADDRESS YOU CAN CHOOSE TO SHARE
ANY PERSONAL INFORMATION YOU WANTAT ANY TIME.
CONTINUE

CANCEL

FIG. 4E

20.22%
o

O

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Ous VIEW

Sheet 8 of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

DiscoveRY VEw

FILTER PREDICTED RELATIVES: ALL RESULTS (2)

w

RESULTS 1 - 2 OF2

CONTAC
STATUS

% DNA
SHARED

MAKE CONTACT

MAK

G

STEP II FREE INTRODUCTION

1864%

SHARED
SEGMENTS

38

THIS INTRODUCTIONS FREE

FORMOREABOUT ITS ALWAYS FREE TO CONTACTRELATIVES WHO HAVE
D-3 SEND FEEDB HIGHLIGHTED THEIRRELATIVE FINDER PROFILE.

SEND INTRODUCTION

CANCEL

FIG. 4F

LSTVIEW

DISCOVERY VEW

FILTER PREDICTED RELATIVES: ALL RESULTS (2
CONTACT

STATUS

w

w

&

MAKE CONTACT
STEP III: CONFIRMATION

D-3 SEND FEEDBEMAIL ADDRESS (LAWRENCERF2 DANIEL(023ANDMECOM)
ASWELLASIN YOUR 23ANDMENBOX.

RESULTS 1 - 2 OF2
DNA

SHARED

SHARED

SEGMENTS

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

LIST VIEW

Sheet 9 Of 15

DISCOVERY VEW

w

FILTER PREDICTED RELATIVES: ALL RESULTS (2)
CONTACT

PREDICTED

STATUS

RELATIONSHIP

THIS PERSON
WOULDLKE

AUNTUNCLE

TO CONTACT YOU.

NEPHEW

NECE OR

VIEWMESSAGE

HAESENG

CONTACT ACCEPTED
SEND AMESSAGE

SIBLNG

VIEW CONVERSATION

US 8,463,554 B2

RELATIONSHIP

RANGE

PERSONALDETALS

S.

RESULTS1-2 OF 2
% DNA SHARED

ssNis

G

DANIELLAWRENCERF2

20.22%

MATERNALHAPLOGROUP U5a1

PATERNAL HAPLOGROUP
R1b1b2a1a2d3'

S.

G

ERINLAWRENCERF2
MATERNAL HAPOGROUPH1

FIG. 4H

46.75%

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 10 of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

VIEWMESSAGE

DECEMBER2, 2009

DEARIAN LAWRENCE r2

RESULTS 12 OF 2

A POTENTIAL RELATIVE WOULD LIKE TOMAKE CONTACT
WITH YOU. YOU CAN CHOOSE TO ACCEPT CONTACTOR
DECLINEBELOW.

% DNA # SHARED
SHARED SEGMENTS

AUNTIUNCLE, NEPHEWINIECE, OR HALF-SIBLING

DANIEL LAWRENCErf2.

MATERNAL HAPLOGROUP U5a1
PATERNAL HAPLOGROUP R1b1b2a1a2.3"
S MESSAGE FROMSENDER:

RF2
ROUP

20.22%

GROUP

HELLO,
23ANDME HASIDENTIFIED USASPOTENTIAL RELATIVES.
WOULD YOU BEINTERESTED IN COMMUNICATING FURTHER
CONTACTAC TO SEE HOWWEMIGHT BE RELATED?

46.75%

WOULD YOULIKE TO BEIN CONTACT?

OYES, ACCEPT.
O NO, DECLINE.
FORMOREAB

D-XSEND FE

SUBMIT

CANCEL

FIG. 4

43

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 11 of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

500 N

identify adjacent opposite-homozygous
calls in two users' SNP sequences

Determine distance between adjacent
Opposite-homozygous calls

Identify IBD regions based at least in part
on the distance between the opposite
homozygous calls

Calculate number of shared segments and
amount of DNA shared by the users

Determine a predicted relationship and/or

the range of relationships

FIG. 5

502

504

-506

508

51

O

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 12 of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

602

AA

AB

BB

a

. . .
610

pe

612

AB BB

o

614 608

AB \

p
FIG. 6

604

?o

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 13 of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

806

810

AA

812

CD

O

User 2 AB

0.

User 3 BB

Alice

GH

(10)

EF

O

EF

(10)

o

o

EE

O

0.

JJ
IJ

O

IJ

o

0.

EF

User 63 BB
User 64 AB

US 8,463,554 B2

814 816

EE

(0)

User 1 AA

Sheet 14 of 15

0.

FF
818

J
82O

FIG. 8

822

824

U.S. Patent

Jun. 11, 2013

Sheet 15 Of 15

US 8,463,554 B2

Alice A G T | C T G C A A
C GA CAG | TC A

... -- 902
... -- 904

Bob

... -- 906
... -- 908

CAT
A. A T

G AC C C G
C T G | CAA

FIG. 9

US 8,463,554 B2
1.
FINDING RELATIVES IN ADATABASE
CROSS REFERENCE TO OTHER
APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent
Application No. 61/204,195 entitled FINDING RELATIVES
INA DATABASE OF USERS filed Dec. 31, 2008 which is

incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

10

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Genealogy is the study of the history of families and the
line of descent from ancestors. It is an interesting Subject
studied by many professionals as well as hobbyists. Tradi
tional genealogical study techniques typically involve con
structing family trees based on Surnames and historical
records. As gene sequencing technology becomes more
accessible, there has been growing interest in genetic ancestry
testing in recent years.
Existing genetic ancestry testing techniques are typically
based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) information of the Y
chromosome (Y-DNA) or DNA information of the mitochon
dria (mtDNA). Aside from a small amount of mutation, the
Y-DNA is passed down unchanged from father to son and
therefore is useful for testing patrilineal ancestry of a man.
The mtDNA is passed down mostly unchanged from mother
to children and therefore is useful for testing a person’s matri
linealancestry. These techniques are found to be effective for
identifying individuals that are related many generations ago
(e.g., 10 generations or more), but are typically less effective
for identifying closer relationships. Further, many relation
ships that are not strictly patrilineal or matrilineal cannot be
easily detected by the existing techniques.

15

described in connection with such embodiments, but the

25

30

Various embodiments of the invention are disclosed in the

following detailed description and the accompanying draw
40

45

50

tWO uSerS.

FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating example DNA data used for
IBD identification by process 500.
FIG. 7 shows the simulated relationship distribution pat
terns for different population groups according to one

55

embodiment.

FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating an embodiment of a highly
parallel IBD identification process.
FIG.9 is a diagram illustrating an example in which phased
data is compared to identify IBD.

60

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention can be implemented in numerous ways,
including as a process; an apparatus; a system; a composition
of matter, a computer program product embodied on a com

(collectively referred to as recombinable DNA) from the par
ents is shuffled at the next generation, with Small amounts of
mutation. Thus, only relatives will share long stretches of
genome regions where their recombinable DNA is com
pletely or nearly identical. Such regions are referred to as
“Identical by Descent” (IBD) regions because they arose
from the same DNA sequences in an earlier generation. The
relative finder technique described below is based at least in
part on locating IBD regions in the recombinable chromo
Somes of individuals.

database.

FIGS. 4A-4I are screenshots illustrating user interface
examples in connection with process 300.
FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating an embodiment of a process
for determining the expected degree of relationship between

known in the technical fields related to the invention has not
been described in detail so that the invention is not unneces

chromosomes, the autosomal DNA and X chromosome DNA

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a
relative finding system.
FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a pro
cess for finding relatives in a relative finding system.
FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a pro
cess for connecting a user with potential relatives found in the

invention is not limited to any embodiment. The scope of the
invention is limited only by the claims and the invention
encompasses numerous alternatives, modifications and
equivalents. Numerous specific details are set forth in the
following description in order to provide a thorough under
standing of the invention. These details are provided for the
purpose of example and the invention may be practiced
according to the claims without some or all of these specific
details. For the purpose of clarity, technical material that is
sarily obscured.
Because of recombination and independent assortment of

35

1ngS.

2
puter readable storage medium; and/or a processor, such as a
processor configured to execute instructions stored on and/or
provided by a memory coupled to the processor. In this speci
fication, these implementations, or any other form that the
invention may take, may be referred to as techniques. In
general, the order of the steps of disclosed processes may be
altered within the scope of the invention. Unless stated oth
erwise, a component Such as a processor or a memory
described as being configured to perform a task may be imple
mented as a general component that is temporarily configured
to perform the task at a given time or a specific component
that is manufactured to perform the task. As used herein, the
term processor refers to one or more devices, circuits, and/or
processing cores configured to process data, Such as computer
program instructions.
A detailed description of one or more embodiments of the
invention is provided below along with accompanying figures
that illustrate the principles of the invention. The invention is

65

In Some embodiments, locating IBD regions includes
sequencing the entire genomes of the individuals and com
paring the genome sequences. In some embodiments, locat
ing IBD regions includes assaying a large number of markers
that tend to vary in different individuals and comparing the
markers. Examples of such markers include Single Nucle
otide Polymorphisms (SNPs), which are points along the
genome with two or more common variations; Short Tandem
Repeats (STRs), which are repeated patterns of two or more
repeated nucleotide sequences adjacent to each other, and
Copy-Number Variants (CNVs), which include longer
sequences of DNA that could be present in varying numbers
in different individuals. Long stretches of DNA sequences
from different individuals genomes in which markers in the
same locations are the same or at least compatible indicate
that the rest of the sequences, although not assayed directly,
are also likely identical.
FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a
relative finding system. In this example, relative finder system
102 may be implemented using one or more server computers
having one or more processors, one or more special purpose
computing appliances, or any other appropriate hardware,
software, or combinations thereof. The operations of the rela
tive finder system are described in greater detail below. In this

US 8,463,554 B2
3
example, various users of the system (e.g., user 1 ("Alice')
and user 2 (“Bob”)) access the relative finder system via a
network 104 using client devices such as 106 and 108. User
information (including genetic information and optionally
other personal information Such as family information, popu
lation group, etc.) pertaining to the users is stored in a data
base 110, which can be implemented on an integral storage
component of the relative finder system, an attached storage
device, a separate storage device accessible by the relative
finder system, or a combination thereof. Many different
arrangements of the physical components are possible in

10

various embodiments. In various embodiments, the entire

genome sequences or assayed DNA markers (SNPs, STRs,
CNVs, etc.) are stored in the database to facilitate the relative
finding process. For example, approximately 650,000 SNPs
per individual’s genome are assayed and stored in the data
base in Some implementations.
System 100 shown in this example includes genetic and
other additional non-genetic information for many users. By
comparing the recombinable DNA information to identify
IBD regions between various users, the relative finder system
can identify users within the database that are relatives. Since
more distant relationships (second cousins or further) are
often unknown to the users themselves, the system allows the
users to "opt-in' and receive notifications about the existence
of relative relationships. Users are also presented with the
option of connecting with their newly found relatives.
FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a pro
cess for finding relatives in a relative finding system. Process
200 may be implemented on a relative finder system such as
100. The process may be invoked, for example, at a user's
request to look for potential relatives this user may have in the
database or by the system to assess the potential relationships
among various users. At 202, recombinable DNAinformation
of a first user (e.g., Alice) and of a second user (e.g., Bob) is

15

and Bob are only estimated to be 6" cousins after step 204, if

25

35

from a database that stores recombinable DNAinformation of
40

mation such as STR information and/or CNV information

may be used in other embodiments.
At 204, a predicted degree of relationship between Alice
and Bob is determined. In some embodiments, a range of
possible relationships between the users is determined and a
prediction of the most likely relationship between the users is
made. In some embodiments, it is optionally determined
whether the predicted degree of relationship at least meets a
threshold. The threshold may be a user configurable value, a
system default value, a value configured by the systems
operator, or any other appropriate value. For example, Bob
may select five generations as the maximum threshold, which
means he is interested in discovering relatives with whom the
user shares a common ancestor five generations or closer.
Alternatively, the system may set a default value minimum of
three generations, allowing the users to by default find rela
tives sharing a common ancestorat least three generations out
or beyond. In some embodiments, the system, the user, or
both, have the option to set a minimum threshold (e.g., two
generations) and a maximum threshold (e.g., six generations)

45

system are optionally checked to infer additional relatives at
210. For example, if Bob is identified as a third cousin of
Alice's, then Bob's relatives in the system (such as children,
siblings, possibly some of the parents, aunts, uncles, cousins,
etc.) are also deemed to be relatives of Alices. In some
embodiments a threshold is applied to limit the relationships
within a certain range. Additional notifications about these
relatives are optionally generated.
Upon receiving a notification about another user who is a
potential relative, the notified user is allowed to make certain
choices about how to interact with the potential relative. FIG.
3 is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a process for
connecting a user with potential relatives found in the data
base. The process may be implemented on a relative finder
system Such as 102, a client system Such as 106, or a combi
nation thereof. In this example, it is assumed that it has been
determined that Alice and Bob are possibly 4th cousins and
that Alice has indicated that she would like to be notified

50

55

60

so that the user would discover relatives within a maximum

number of generations, but would not be surprised by the
discovery of a close relative Such as a sibling who was previ
ously unknown to the user.
At 206, Alice or Bob (or both) is notified about her/his
relative relationship with the other user. In some embodi
ments, the system actively notifies the users by sending mes

among Alice's relatives in the system, a third cousin, Cathy, is
also a sibling of Bob's, then Alice and Bob are deemed to be
third cousins because of their relative relationships to Cathy.
The relative relationships with the third user may be deter
mined based on genetic information and analysis using a
process similar to 200, based on non-genetic information
such as family tree supplied by one of the users, or both.
In some embodiments, the relatives of the users in the

30

received. In some embodiments, the information is retrieved

a plurality of users as well as any additional user information.
For purposes of illustration, SNP information is described
extensively in this and following examples. Other DNAinfor

4
sages or alerts about the relationship information when it
becomes available. Other notification techniques are pos
sible, for example by displaying a list or table of users that are
found to be related to the user. Depending on system settings,
the potential relatives may be shown anonymously for privacy
protection, or shown with visible identities to facilitate mak
ing connections. In embodiments where a threshold is set, the
user is only notified if the predicted degree of relationship at
least meets the threshold. In some embodiments, a user is only
notified if both of the user and the potential relative have
“opted in to receive the notification. In various embodi
ments, the user is notified about certain personal information
of the potential relative, the predicted relationship, the pos
sible range of relationships, the amount of DNA matching, or
any other appropriate information.
In some embodiments, at 208, the process optionally infers
additional relationships or refines estimates of existing rela
tionships between the users based on other relative relation
ship information, Such as the relative relationship information
the users have with a third user. For example, although Alice

about any potential relatives within 6 generations. In this
example, process 300 follows 206 of process 200, where a
notification is sent to Alice, indicating that a potential relative
has been identified. In some embodiments, the identity of Bob
is disclosed to Alice. In some embodiments, the identity of
Bob is not disclosed initially to protect Bob's privacy.
Upon receiving the notification, Alice decides that she
would like to make a connection with the newly found rela
tive. At 302, an invitation from Alice to Bob inviting Bob to
make a connection is generated. In various embodiments, the
invitation includes information about how Alice and Bob may
be related and any personal information Alice wishes to share
Such as her own ancestry information. Upon receiving the
invitation, Bob can accept the invitation or decline. At 304, an
acceptance or a declination is received. If a declination is
received, no further action is required. In some embodiments,
Alice is notified that a declination has been received. If,

65

however, an acceptance is received, at 306, a connection is
made between Alice and Bob. In various embodiments, once

a connection is made, the identities and any other sharable

US 8,463,554 B2
6
FIG. 4I shows the message as it is displayed to the recipi
ent. In addition to the content of the message, the recipient is
given the option to accept or decline the invitation to be in
contact with the sender. If the recipient accepts the invitation,
the recipient and the sender become connected and may view

5
personal information (e.g., genetic information, family his
tory, phenotype/traits, etc.) of Alice and Bob are revealed to
each other and they may interact with each other. In some
embodiments, the connection information is updated in the
database.

In some embodiments, a user can discover many potential
relatives in the database at once. Additional potential relatives
are added as more users join the system and make their
genetic information available for the relative finding process.
FIGS. 4A-4I are screenshots illustrating user interface
examples in connection with process 300. In this example, the
relative finder application provides two views to the user: the
discovery view and the list view.
FIG. 4A shows an interface example for the discovery view
at the beginning of the process. No relative has been discov
ered at this point. In this example, a privacy feature is built
into the relative finder application so that close relative infor
mation will only be displayed if both the user and the close

each other's information and/or interact with each other.

10

database is now described. In some embodiments, the deter
15

relative have chosen to view close relatives. This is referred to

as the “opt in feature. The user is further presented with a
selection button “show close relatives” to indicate that he/she

is interested in finding out about close relatives. FIG. 4B
shows a message that is displayed when the user selects
“show close relatives”. The message explains to the user how
a close relative is defined. In this case, a close relative is

defined as a first cousin or closer. In other words, the system
has set a default minimum threshold of three degrees. The
message further explains that unless there is already an exist
ing connection between the user and the close relative, any
newly discovered potential close relatives will not appear in
the results unless the potential close relatives have also cho
sen to view their close relatives. The message further warns
about the possibility of finding out about close relatives the
user did not know he/she had. The user has the option to
proceed with viewing close relatives or cancel the selection.
FIG. 4C shows the results in the discovery view. In this
example, seven potential relatives are found in the database.
The predicted relationship, the range of possible relationship,
certain personal details a potential relative has made public,
the amount of DNA a potential relative shares with the user,
and the number of DNA segments the potential relative shares
with the user are displayed. The user is presented with a
“make contact selection button for each potential relative.
FIG. 4D shows the results in the list view. The potential
relatives are sorted according to how close the corresponding
predicted relationships are to the user in icon form. The user
may select an icon that corresponds to a potential relative and
view his/her personal information, the predicted relationship,
relationship range, and other additional information. The user
can also make contact with the potential relative.

mination includes comparing the DNA markers (e.g., SNPs)
of two users and identifying IBD regions. The standard SNP
based genotyping technology results in genotype calls each
having two alleles, one from each half of a chromosome pair.
As used herein, a genotype call refers to the identification of
the pair of alleles at a particular locus on the chromosome.
Genotype calls can be phased or unphased. In phased data, the
individual’s diploid genotype at a particular locus is resolved
into two haplotypes, one for each chromosome. In unphased
data, the two alleles are unresolved; in other words, it is

uncertain which allele corresponds to which haplotype or
chromosome.
25

30

35

40

The genotype call at a particular SNP location may be a
heterozygous call with two differentalleles or a homozygous
call with two identical alleles. A heterozygous call is repre
sented using two different letters such as AB that correspond
to different alleles. Some SNPs are biallelic SNPs with only
two possible states for SNPs. Some SNPs have more states,
e.g. triallelic. Other representations are possible.
In this example, A is selected to represent an allele with
base A and B represents an allele with base G at the SNP
location. Other representations are possible. A homozygous
call is represented using a pair of identical letters such as AA
or BB. The two alleles in a homozygous call are interchange
able because the same allele came from each parent. When
two individuals have opposite-homozygous calls at a given
SNP location, or, in other words, one person has alleles AA
and the other person has alleles BB, it is very likely that the
region in which the SNP resides does not have IBD since
different alleles came from different ancestors. If, however,

45

50

FIGS. 4E-4G show the user interface when the user selects

to “make contact with a potential relative. FIG. 4E shows the
first step in making contact, where the user personalizes the
introduction message and determine what information the
user is willing to share with the potential relative. FIG. 4F
shows an optional step in making contact, where the user is
told about the cost of using the introduction service. In this
case, the introduction is free. FIG. 4G shows the final step,
where the introduction message is sent.
FIG. 4H shows the user interface shown to the potential
relative upon receiving the introduction message. In this
example, the discovery view indicates that a certain user/
potential relative has requested to make a contact. The pre
dicted relationship, personal details of the sender, and DNA
sharing information are shown to the recipient. The recipient
has the option to select “view message' to view the introduc
tion message from the sender.

Many other user interfaces can be used in addition to or as
alternatives of the ones shown above. For example, in some
embodiments, at least Some of the potential relatives are
displayed in a family tree.
Determining the relationship between two users in the

55

60

the two individuals have compatible calls, that is, both have
the same homozygotes (i.e., both people have AA alleles or
both have BB alleles), both have heterozygotes (i.e., both
people have AB alleles), or one has a heterozygote and the
other a homozygote (i.e., one has AB and the other has AA or
BB), there is some chance that at least one allele is passed
down from the same ancestor and therefore the region in
which the SNP resides is IBD. Further, based on statistical

computations, if a region has a very low rate of opposite
homozygote occurrence over a Substantial distance, it is
likely that the individuals inherited the DNA sequence in the
region from the same ancestor and the region is therefore
deemed to be an IBD region.
FIG.5 is a diagram illustrating an embodiment of a process
for determining the predicted degree of relationship between
two users. Process 500 may be implemented on a relative
finder system such as 102 and is applicable to unphased data.
At 502, consecutive opposite-homozygous calls in the users
SNPs are identified. The consecutive opposite-homozygous
calls can be identified by serially comparing individual SNPs
in the users SNP sequences or in parallel using bitwise opera
tions as described below. At 504, the distance between con

65

secutive opposite-homozygous calls is determined. At 506,
IBD regions are identified based at least in part on the distance
between the opposite-homozygous calls. The distance may be

US 8,463,554 B2
7
physical distance measured in the number of base pairs or
genetic distance accounting for the rate of recombination. For
example, in some embodiments, if the genetic distance
between the locations of two consecutive opposite-homozy
gous calls is greater thana threshold of 10 centimorgans (cM),
the region between the calls is determined to be an IBD
region. This step may be repeated for all the opposite-ho
mozygous calls. A tolerance for genotyping error can be built
by allowing some low rate of opposite homozygotes when
calculating an IBD segment. In some embodiments, the total
number of matching genotype calls is also taken into account
when deciding whether the region is IBD. For example, a
region may be examined where the distance between con
secutive opposite homozygous calls is just below the 10 cM
threshold. If a large enough number of genotype calls within
that interval match exactly, the interval is deemed IBD.
FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating example DNA data used for
IBD identification by process 500. 602 and 604 correspond to
the SNP sequences of Alice and Bob, respectively. At location
606, the alleles of Alice and Bob are opposite-homozygotes,
suggesting that the SNP at this location resides in a non-IBD
region. Similarly, at location 608, the opposite-homozygotes
suggest a non-IBD region. At location 610, however, both
pairs of alleles are heterozygotes, suggesting that there is
potential for IBD. Similarly, there is potential for IBD at
location 612, where both pairs of alleles are identical
homozygotes, and at location 614, where Alice's pair of alle
les is heterozygous and Bob's is homozygous. If there is no
other opposite-homozygote between 606 and 608 and there
are a large number of compatible calls between the two loca
tions, it is then likely that the region between 606 and 608 is
an IBD region.
Returning to FIG. 5, at 508, the number of shared IBD
segments and the amount of DNA shared by the two users are
computed based on the IBD. In some embodiments, the long
est IBD segment is also determined. In some embodiments,
the amount of DNA shared includes the sum of the lengths of
IBD regions and/or percentage of DNA shared. The sum is

referred to as IBD, or half IBD because the individuals

share DNA identical by descent for at least one of the homolo
gous chromosomes. At 510, the predicted relationship
between the users, the range of possible relationships, or both,

8
There is a statistical range of possible relationships for the

same IBD, and shared segment number. In some embodi

10

part on the distribution patterns, the IBD, and shared num

ber of segments, the degree of relationship between two indi
viduals can be estimated. FIG. 7 shows the simulated rela
15

segments in an Ashkenazi sample group, the 95%, 50% and
5% of obtained nth degree cousinships from 1 million simu
lated pedigrees are plotted. In panels D-F, for each combina

tion of IBD, and the number of IBD segments in a European
25

30

35

40

45

mining the relationship based on the overall number of IBD
segments and percent DNA shared, individual chromosomes
are examined to determine the relationship. For example, X
chromosome information is received in some embodiments
in addition to the autosomal chromosomes. The X chromo

50

the total length of all the autosomal chromosomes and many
more shared segments; in each Subsequent degree of relation

somes of the users are also processed to identify IBD. Since
one of the X chromosomes in a female user is passed on from
her father without recombination, the female inherits one X

ship, the percentage of IBD, of the totallength is about 50%

55

chromosome from her maternal grandmother and another one
from her mother. Thus, the X chromosome undergoes recom
bination at a slower rate compared to autosomal chromo
Somes and more distant relationships can be predicted using
IBD found on the X chromosomes.

accounted for and corrected. In some embodiments, certain

genotyped SNPs are removed from consideration if there are
a large number of Mendelian errors when comparing data
from known parent/offspring trios. In some embodiments,
SNPs that have a high no-call rate or otherwise failed quality
control measures during the assay process are removed. In
Some embodiments, in an IBD segment, an occasional oppo
site-homozygote is allowed if there is Sufficient opposite
homozygotes-free distance (e.g., at least 3 cMand 300 SNPs)
Surrounding the opposite-homozygote.

pedigree are marked as “unknown in panels A-F. Thus, spe
cial distribution patterns can be used to find relatives of users
who have indicated that they belong to certain distinctive
population groups such as the Ashkenazi.
The amount of IBD sharing is used in some embodiments
to identify different population groups. For example, for a
given degree of relationship, since Ashkenazi tend to have
much more IBD sharing than non-Ashkenazi Europeans,
users may be classified as either Ashkenazi or non-Ashkenazi
Europeans based on the number and pattern of IBD matches.
In some embodiments, instead of, or in addition to, deter

IBD, that is 100% the total length of all the autosomal

of the previous degree. Also, for more distant relationships, in
each Subsequent degree of relationship, the number of shared
segments is approximately half of the previous number.
In various embodiments, the effects of genotyping error are

sample group, the 95%, 50% and 5% of obtained nth degree
cousinships from 1 million simulated pedigrees are plotted. In
panels G-I, the differences between Ashkenazi and European
distant cousinship for the prior panels are represented. Each
nth cousinship category is scaled by the expected number of
nth degree cousins given a model of population growth.
Simulations are conducted by specifying an extended pedi
gree and creating simulated genomes for the pedigree by
simulating the mating of individuals drawn from a pool of
empirical genomes. Pairs of individuals who appear to share

IBD, that was not inherited through the specified simulated

chromosomes and 22 shared autosomal chromosome seg
ments; in a second degree grandparent/grandchild relation

ship, the individuals have IBD, that is approximately half

tionship distribution patterns for different population groups
according to one embodiment. In particular, Ashkenazi Jews
and Europeans are two population groups Surveyed. In panels

A-C, for each combination of IBD, and the number of IBD

is determined using the IBD, and number of segments,
based on the distribution pattern of IBD, and shared seg

ments for different types of relationships. For example, in a
first degree parent/child relationship, the individuals have

ments, the distribution patterns are determined empirically
based on survey of real populations. Different population
groups may exhibit different distribution patterns. For
example, the level of homozygosity within endogamous
populations is found to be higher than in populations receiv
ing gene flow from other groups. In some embodiments, the
bounds of particular relationships are estimated using simu
lations of IBD using generated family trees. Based at least in

60

In some embodiments, analyses of mutations within IBD
segments can be used to estimate ages of the IBD segments
and refine estimates of relationships between users.
In some embodiments, the relationship determined is veri
fied using non-DNA information. For example, the relation
ship may be checked against the users family tree informa
tion, birth records, or other user information.

65

In some embodiments, the efficiency of IBD region iden
tification is improved by comparing a user's DNA informa
tion with the DNA information of multiple other users in
parallel and using bitwise operations. FIG. 8 is a diagram

US 8,463,554 B2
9
illustrating an embodiment of a highly parallel IBD identifi
cation process. Alice’s SNP calls are compared with those of
multiple other users. Alice’s SNP calls are pre-processed to
identify ones that are homozygous. Alice's heterozygous
calls are not further processed since they always indicate that
there is possibility of IBD with another user. For each SNP
call in Alice's genome that is homozygous, the Zygosity states
in the corresponding SNP calls in the other users are encoded.
In this example, compatible calls (e.g., heterozygous calls
and same homozygous calls) are encoded as 0 and opposite
homozygous calls are encoded as 1. For example, for
homozygous SNP call AA at location 806, opposite-homozy
gous calls BB are encoded as 1 and compatible calls (AA and
AB) are encoded as 0; for homozygous SNP call EE at loca
tion 812, opposite-homozygous calls FF are encoded as 1 and
compatible calls (EE and EF) are encoded as 0, etc. The
encoded representations are stored in arrays such as 818, 820,
and 824. In some embodiments, the length of the array is the
same as the word length of the processor to achieve greater
processing efficiency. For example, in a 64-bit processing
system, the array length is set to 64 and the Zygosity of 64
users SNP calls are encoded and stored in the array.
A bitwise operation is performed on the encoded arrays to

10
chromosomes and Suggests the possibility of IBD sharing. If
enough matching words are present in close proximity to each
other, the region would be deemed IBD.
In some embodiments, relative relationships found using
the techniques described above are used to infer characteris
tics about the users that are related to each other. In some

embodiments, the inferred characteristic is based on non
10

15

risk for the same disease.

determine whether a section of DNA such as the section

between locations 806 and 810 includes opposite-homozy
gous calls. In this example, a bitwise OR operation is per
formed to generate a result array 824. Any user with no
opposite-homozygous calls between beginning location 806
and ending location 816 results in an entry value of 0 in array
824. The corresponding DNA segment, therefore, is deemed
as an IBD region for Such user and Alice. In contrast, users
with opposite-homozygotes result in corresponding entry
values of 1 in array 824 and they are deemed not to share IBD
with Alice in this region. In the example shown, user 1 shares

25

IBD with Alice while other users do not.

35

In some embodiments, phased data is used instead of
unphased data. These data can come directly from assays that
produce phased data, or from statistical processing of
unphased data. IBD regions are determined by matching the
SNP sequences between users. In some embodiments,
sequences of SNPs are stored in dictionaries using a hash
table data structure for the ease of comparison. FIG. 9 is a
diagram illustrating an example in which phased data is com
pared to identify IBD. The sequences are split along pre
defined intervals into non-overlapping words. Other embodi
ments may use overlapping words. Although a preset length
of 3 is used for purposes of illustration in the example shown,
many implementations may use words of longer lengths (e.g.
100). Also, the length does not have to be the same for every
location. In FIG. 9, in Alice's chromosome pair 1, chromo
some 902 is represented by words AGT, CTG, CAA, ... and
chromosome 904 is represented by CGA, CAG, TCA, .... At

shown, the second and third words of chromosome 908 match

Although the foregoing embodiments have been described
in Some detail for purposes of clarity of understanding, the
invention is not limited to the details provided. There are
many alternative ways of implementing the invention. The
disclosed embodiments are illustrative and not restrictive.
What is claimed is:

30

1. A method for determining a relative relationship of
people who share a common ancestor within a threshold
number of generations, comprising:
obtaining recombinable deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
sequence information of a first user and recombinable
sequence DNA information of a second user; wherein
the recombinable DNA sequence information of the first
user and the recombinable DNA sequence information
of the second user are stored in a database comprising
recombinable DNA sequence information of a plurality
of users;

40

45

determining, using one or more computer processors,
based at least in part on a comparison of the recombin
able DNA sequence information of the first user and the
recombinable DNA sequence information of the second
user, a predicted degree of relative relationship that cor
responds to a number of generations within which the
first user and the second user share a common ancestor;
and

notifying at least the first user about the relative relation
ship with the second user.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein the threshold number of

50

generations is preconfigured; and determining the predicted
degree of relationship includes determining whether the num
ber of generations within which the first user and the second
user share a common ancestor at least meets the threshold

each location, the words are stored in a hash table that

includes information about a plurality of users to enable con
stant retrieval of which users carry matching haplotypes.
Similar hash tables are constructed for other sequences start
ing at other locations. To determine whether Bob's chromo
some pair 1 shares any IBD with Alice's, Bob's sequences are
processed into words at the same locations as Alice's. Thus,
Bob’s chromosome 906 yields CAT, GAC, CCG, . . . and
chromosome 908 yields AAT, CTG, CAA, . . . . Every word
from Bob's chromosomes is then looked up in the corre
sponding hash table to check whether any other users have the
same word at that location in their genomes. In the example

genetic information pertaining to the related users. For
example, if a user is found to have a number of relatives that
belong to a particular population group, then an inference is
made that the user may also belong to the same population
group. In some embodiments, genetic information is used to
infer characteristics, in particular characteristics specific to
shared IBD segments of the related users. Assume, for
example, that Alice has sequenced her entire genome but her
relatives in the system have only genotyped SNP data. If
Alice's genome sequence indicates that she may have inher
ited a disease gene, then, with Alice's permission, Alice's
relatives who have shared IBD with Alice in the same region
that includes the disease gene may be notified that they are at

number of generations.
55

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the recombinable DNA

sequence information includes autosomal DNA sequence
information.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the recombinable DNA
60

65

sequence information includes X chromosome DNA
sequence information.
5. The method of claim 1, wherein the predicted degree of
relative relationship indicates that the first user and the second
user share a common ancestor at least three generations out or
beyond.
6. The method of claim 1, further comprising sending, via

second and third words of Alice's chromosome 902. This

a user interface, an invitation to connect from said at least one

indicates that SNP sequence CTGCAA is present in both

user to the other user.

US 8,463,554 B2
11

12
16. The method of claim 1, wherein the DNA sequence
information comprises genotype information, and the method
further comprises correcting genotyping error in the DNA
sequence information.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein:

determining the predicted degree of relationship between
the first user and the second user includes identifying
one or more Inheritance By Descent (IBD) regions in
which a portion of recombinable DNA sequence of the 5 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the relative relation
first user and a portion of recombinable DNA sequence ship is one of a range of possible relative relationships
of the second user arose from same DNA sequence of an between the first user and the second user, and wherein noti
fying includes sending an indication of the range of possible
ancestor,
the predicted degree of relationship depends at least in part 10 relative relationships between the first user and the second
on an amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD USC. The method of claim 1, wherein notifying includes
18.
regions:
the amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD sending, via a network, an indication of a predicted relation
ship.
regions includes a Sum of the lengths of IBD regions,
19. The method of claim 2, wherein the threshold number
percentage of DNA shared in the IBD regions, or both; 15 of generations corresponds to is a minimum predicted degree
and
of relationship.
a greater amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD
20. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing
regions indicates a closer predicted degree of relation the second user with an option to be contacted by potential
ship.
relatives, and wherein notifying is performed only if the sec
8. The method of claim 1, wherein determining a predicted ond user has agreed to be contacted by potential relatives.
degree of relationship between the first user and the second
21. The method of claim 1, wherein:
the first user has a known characteristic; and
user includes using a distribution pattern that indicates a
the method further comprises inferring that the second user
distribution of amounts of DNA shared by individuals and
has the same characteristic given that the first user and
corresponding relative relationships to determine the pre
the second user are related and the known characteristic
dicted relative relationship or a range of relative relationships. 25
is likely shared by people who are related.
9. The method of claim 8, wherein the distribution pattern
22. The method of claim 7, wherein:
is an initial distribution pattern, and the initial distribution
the first user has a known characteristic that is a genotype
pattern is adjusted based on a population group to which at
or a phenotype associated with one or more genes in the
least one of the users belongs, and the population group is 30
one or more IBD regions; and
associated with a corresponding distribution pattern that is
the method further comprises inferring that the second user
different from the initial distribution pattern.
has the same characteristic given that the first user and
10. The method of claim 1, wherein the DNA sequence
the second user share said one or more IBD regions.
information includes single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
23. The method of claim 22, wherein the characteristic is an
information.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the SNP information

includes unphased genotype information.
12. The method of claim 7, wherein identifying one or
more IBD regions includes:
identifying consecutive opposite-homozygous calls in a
SNP sequence of the first user and in a SNP sequence of

35

24. The method of claim 1, further comprising determining
a relative relationship of a third user with respect to the first
user, a relative relationship of the third user with respect to the
second user, or both;
40

the second user, wherein the first user and the second

user have opposite-homozygous calls at a given SNP
location where the first user and the second user do not

share an allele;

45

determining, based at least in part on a distance between
the consecutive opposite-homozygous calls, whether a
region between the opposite-homozygous calls is an
IBD region.
13. The method of claim 12, wherein the distance is a

genetic distance.
14. The method of claim 10, wherein the SNP sequence
information includes phased genotype information.
15. The method of claim 14, further comprising:
storing a first plurality of SNP sequence words that corre
sponds to SNP sequence information of the first user in
one or more hash tables, wherein a SNP sequence word
includes encoded SNP sequence information stored in

more hash tables.

inferring or refining a relative relationship between the first
user and the second user given the relative relationship
information of a third user with respect to the first user,
the relative relationship of the third user with respect to
the second user, or both, and given the predicted degree
of relative relationship between the first user and the
second user.

50

55

an array,

and wherein the comparison of the recombinable DNA
sequence information of the first user and the recombin
able DNA sequence information of the second user
includes determining whether one or more consecutive
SNP sequence words in a second plurality of SNP
sequence words of the second user matches one or more
consecutive SNP sequence words stored in said one or

inherited disease.

60

25. The method of claim 1, further comprising:
determining a relative relationship of a third user with
respect to the second user;
inferring an additional relative relationship or refining an
existing predicted relative relationship between the first
user and the third user, given the predicted degree of
relative relationship between the first user and the sec
ond user, and given the relative relationship of the third
user with respect to the second user.
26. A system for determining a relative relationship of
people who share a common ancestor within a threshold
number of generations, comprising:
one or more processors configured to:
receive recombinable deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
information of a first user and recombinable DNA

sequence information of a second user, wherein the
recombinable DNA sequence information of the first
user and the recombinable DNA sequence informa
65

tion of the second user are stored in a database com

prising recombinable DNA sequence information of a
plurality of users;

US 8,463,554 B2
14
the amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD
regions includes a Sum of the lengths of IBD regions,
percentage of DNA shared in the IBD regions, or both;

13
determine, based at least in part on a comparison of the
recombinable DNA sequence information of the first
user and the recombinable DNA sequence informa
tion of the second user, a predicted degree of relation
ship that corresponds to a number of generations

and

a greater amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD
regions indicates a closer predicted degree of relation
ship.
32. The system of claim 26, wherein the relative relation
ship is one of a range of possible relative relationships

within which the first user and the second user share a

common ancestor, and

notify at least the first user about a relative relationship
with the second user; and

a memory coupled to at least some of the one or more
processors, configured to provide the processors with

10

instructions.

27. A computer program product for determining a relative
relationship of people who share a common ancestor within a
threshold number of generations, the computer program
product being embodied in a tangible computer readable Stor
age medium and comprising computer instructions for:
receiving recombinable deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
sequence information of a first user and recombinable
DNA sequence information of a second user; wherein
the recombinable DNA sequence information of the first
user and the recombinable DNA sequence information
of the second user are stored in a database comprising
recombinable DNA sequence information of a plurality

15

25

30

first user and the second user share a common ancestor;
and

notifying at least the first user about a relative relationship
with the second user.

35

28. The system of claim 26, wherein the recombinable
DNA sequence information includes autosomal DNA
sequence information.
29. The system of claim 26, wherein the recombinable
DNA sequence information includes X chromosome DNA
sequence information.
30. The system of claim 26, wherein the one or more
processors are further configured to send an invitation to

40

connect from said at least one user to the other user.

45

31. The system of claim 26, wherein to determine the
predicted degree of relationship between the first user and the
second user includes to identify one or more Inheritance By
Descent (IBD) regions in which a portion of recombinable
DNA sequence of the first user and a portion of recombinable
DNA sequence of the second user arose from same DNA
sequence of an ancestor,
the predicted degree of relationship depends at least in part
on an amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD
regions:

notify includes to send an indication of the range of possible
relative relationships between the first user and the second
USC.

of users;

determining, based at least in part on a comparison of the
recombinable DNA sequence information of the first
user and the recombinable DNA sequence information
of the second user, a predicted degree of relationship that
corresponds to a number of generations within which the

between the first user and the second user, and wherein to

33. The system of claim 26, wherein the one or more
processors are further configured to provide the second user
with an option to be contacted by potential relatives, and
wherein notifying is performed only if the second user has
agreed to be contacted by potential relatives.
34. The computer program product of claim 27, wherein
the recombinable DNA sequence information includes auto
Somal DNA sequence information.
35. The computer program product of claim 27, wherein
the recombinable DNA sequence information includes X
chromosome DNA sequence information.
36. The computer program product of claim 27, further
comprising computer instructions for sending an invitation to
connect from said at least one user to the other user.

37. The computer program product of claim 27, wherein
determining the predicted degree of relationship between the
first user and the second user includes identifying one or more
Inheritance By Descent (IBD) regions in which a portion of
recombinable DNA sequence of the first user and a portion of
recombinable DNA sequence of the second user arose from
same DNA sequence of an ancestor;
the predicted degree of relationship depends at least in part
on an amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD
regions;
the amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD
regions includes a Sum of the lengths of IBD regions,
percentage of DNA shared in the IBD regions, or both;
and

a greater amount of DNA sequence information of the IBD
regions indicates a closer predicted degree of relation
ship.
38. The computer program product of claim 27, wherein
the relative relationship is one of a range of possible relative
relationships between the first user and the second user, and
wherein notifying includes sending an indication of the range
of possible relative relationships between the first user and the
second user.

50

39. The computer program product of claim 27, further
comprising computer instructions for providing the second
user with an option to be contacted by potential relatives, and
wherein notifying is performed only if the second user has
agreed to be contacted by potential relatives.
k

k

k

k

k