Cambridge University Press et al v. Patton et al

Filing 319

DEPOSITION of Patricia Dixon, Ph.D. taken on April 20, 2011 by Cambridge University Press, Oxford University Press, Inc., Sage Publications, Inc.. (Attachments: # 1 Exhibit Defendant Ex. 20, # 2 Exhibit Defendant Ex. 21, # 3 Exhibit Defendant Ex. 22, # 4 Exhibit 20, # 5 Exhibit 21, # 6 Exhibit 22 -part 1, # 7 Exhibit 22- part2, # 8 Exhibit Plaintiff Ex. 18, # 9 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 1, # 10 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 2, # 11 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 4, # 12 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 8, # 13 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 10, # 14 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 11, # 15 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 12, # 16 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 14, # 17 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 15, # 18 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 16, # 19 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 17, # 20 Exhibit Previously Marked Plaintiff Ex. 17 - Seamans)(Rains, John)

E
X
H
I
B
I
T
21

-s

American Children in

African

Single-Mother Families

Suzanne

whole

takes

It

Randolph

child

to raise

village

African proverb

1990 more than

As of
of

these

since
is

data have

been

African

all

sounded

7.1

Thble

this

over

maintained

lifestyles

have

as

that

similar
social

greater

children

instances

the head

to

households

in

the

for

or

headed

of these households

is

cries

tolerance

of

by

groups

American
wide

percentage

of

woman

single

the childs

time

form

of alarm have

racial/ethnic

African

increased

first

family

the

in

problems

the

Thus
other

18 years

the

is

single-parent

Americans

statistics

acceptance

contributed

American

mother This

their

Increasing

as well

community

and

American children under

usually

most prevalent among African

the

of

of

half

one parent

with

lived

age

mother

range

African
In

most

biological

female
relative
or nonrelative
adoptive in other instances either
for the care of the child This range
of household
may have responsibility
or

and family types
facilitates
painted
are

at

results

childrens

by research
great

risk

for

in

an

intriguing

development
and

the

cultural

However

media suggests

detrimental

outcomes

matrix
the

that

picture

children

although

that

in

supports and
that

these

is

often

families

some are many

do

well

117

_________

Exhibit 21 - 1

AMERICAN SINGLE

AFRICAN

118

Table

7.1

of

Percentage

Under

Children
for

Race/Ethnicity

1960

Age

1970

18

MOTHERS
One Parent

With

Living

by

1980 and 1990

Year

of

Ce nato

Data

Race/Ethnicity

1960

1970

1980

1990

Black

21.9

31.8

45.8

54.8

White

7.1

8.7

N/A

N/A

Ladno

SOURCE U.S

Bureau

The problems
in this

mother

and

An

chaptet
families

made

Census

the

1991

19.2

30.0

21.1

fl

of children

strengths

of

overview

presented

is

15.1

the

with

along

and

their

problems

children

children

and

strengths

that

have

are presented

and
in

to

the

untangle

cultural

that

these

single-

attempt

protects

is

cloaks

in

An

findings

race-specific

matrix

are discussed

families

facing

them from poor developmental
outcomes Adaptive
sustained African American families
and communities

discussed

as

ensuring

optimal

Nobles 1974

role

flexibility

can

such

used

single-mother

are

as

to highlight

families

adaptive

in fostering

the

of

African

communalism

spirituality

of children

development

families Specifically dimensions

single-mother

view

for

strategies

world-

Ameri

of African

strengths

in

development

and

positivity

young children

EFFECTS OF SINGLE-PARENT
STATUS ON CHILDREN
GENERAL FINDINGS
Research
as

has

shown

that

children

many

successful as children in two-parent

and

school

achievement

of mother-only

mary
mother

of

status

from school

at

ages

younger

in

rates

and

rates

acts

and

at

1991

review

school

earlier

out of marriage

delinquent

Booth

adjustment

recent review

sum

present

effects

of

single-

these children

have

more so than girls higher absentee

boys

of poverty

in their

deleterious

to their

According

higher dropout

higher

and

several

suggests

achievement

adulthood

of committing

that

on children

poorer academic
ism

McLanahan

families

literature

families are

on emotional

1982 However

Cashion

mother

in single

families

ages

lower earnings
at

first

higher divorce

higher

rates

marriage
rates

of drug and

in

young

children

higher

rates

alcohol

use

Exhibit 21 - 2

Children

in

Single-Mother

common
these

that

be due

status

children

than

stigma and

also

is

lower

has been

this

associated

expectations
There

factors

have

families

families but

two-parent

been

the household

in

alternative

to

point

has

effects

male

of

from single-mother

family structure

to

deleterious

the absence

other scholars

in

the negative

to

rather

these

explain
to

children

some

example

self-esteem than
to

to

are due

1990 However

Davidson
For

theory used

problems

119

Families

found

with

their

variation

within-group

based
on the reason for the
among children in single-mother families
mothers single status family income level age of mother or the familys
life

e.g

cycle

These

Most notable among
in

male

that

likely

from

fathers

poverty and the

housing

Over

poverty
awarded

or

second

These

earner

the impact

of poverty

adolescents

on

view

of

McLoyd
McLoyd
on

socioemotional

et

indirectly
in

found

through
turn

economic
affect

to

their

impact

parenting behavior

ment predicted
quent

No

families

depressive

maternal punishment

and

families

in

in

families

are

Another

live

in

will

be

cases of

household

with

Waldman

Johnson

representation
only suggestive
line

of inquiry

of maternal behavior

relationship

provides

mother-only

Borquez

live

the added

alimony

in

1982

functioning

have

mothers

single

live

more complex
family

structures

1994
of

relationship

functioning
stressors

in

African

work

adolescents

economic hardship
American
and

interruption

single-

unem

socioemotional

functioning

on mothers psychological

functioning

and

Unemploy

mother-child

symptomatology
and

families

disproportionate

of

As others have

who

American

outcomes

the

examined the

socioemotional

ployment were

and

1994

al

the

implications
Ceballo

Jayaratne

adolescent

mother

of

the

employment or decent

gainful

will

that

of

not the lack of

81

of color

support

or

is

single-parent

American

on childrens

developmental

absence

single-mother

economic hardship and

xamining

the

Hayghe

accounts

among

of

all

child

level

some time

aspect

from

African

income

for

African

Grossman

descriptive

family

has argued

for families

support decrees

Americans

of African

of

third

mothers

that

sections

the

is

by women
male income

single-parent

likely

paternal

wage

1981

support or receive

child

divorce

1983

less

keeps

of

factors

headed

worsens

that

half

one

children or adolescents

following

detrimental

families

volume

of racism

the

explanatory

most

the

figure

burden

is

in

but the lack of

in this

It

the

one-parent

presence

explained

of preschool

further

families Cherlin

single-mother

it seems

or absence

presence

are discussed

points

was mediated

relations

which predicted

more fre

by mothers negative

per-

--

Exhibit 21 - 3

of

ception

associated

maternal

the

with

of

quality

associated

who

their

perceived

hardship

reported

families

higher

McLoyd

self-esteem

as

economic hardship

Thus

there

were

predicted

Adolescents

more severe

more cognitive

at 1994

et

perception of
stressors

strain which

experiencing

anxiety

symp

depressive

both

Moreover

was

punishment

and

financial

of the family

perceptions

MOTHERS

by the adolescents

with maternal perceptions of

adolescents

distress

relationship

parent-child

maternal

frequent

cognitive

were mediated

relations

the

More

role

adolescents

the

toms and these
the

AMERICAN SINGLE

AFRICAN

120

economic

distress and
to

appear

be

lower

complex

family
among family structure maternal functioning
economic experience
and
adolescent
in African
American
functioning
interrelationships

families

single-mother
and

perceived
duced

Also

as

in earlier

studies

McLoyd

young children

et

at

that

Another

decision

children

are

is children

Because

confidants

whom

the

1990

found

psychological

mother

1990

but

in

be

contact

associated

with lower psychological

distress

outcomes

in

Thcker

general

African

Lewis

the kin

American

lose

children

Mends

network

and

social

from detrimental

tasks

and

making Weiss
major

Mends

and

and

problems

example

it

psy

McLoyd

this

in the

should

families

be

families

networks

that

social

members were
to

that

have

buffer

Thylor

noted

childs

to

study

child Others
help

to

mothers

to

related
in

that

provides

some of these
support

related

with family

single-mother

1990 However

poverty or near poverty status

may

its

their

her childrens

positively

noted

satisfying

in

and

compared with

serve as

For

positively

was

turn

should

was

which

that

terms of

as having

also

may undermine

networks

found

included

management
in

economic hardship per se was unrelated

that

It

as

her worries

Wilson

functioning

problems

psychological

they

punish

single-mother

mothers

single

mother

the

it

with

do more household

shares

This

distress which

psychological

by

the

and decision

functioning

McLoyd

well-being

Wilson

seen

are

of

household

households

management

the household

with

chological

childs

household

support

maternal

understood
of

infants

social

maternal role

the

best

generally

of

less

status
in

functioning

single-parent

economic hardships

including

and

in

children

the
in

responsibility

in

is

relationship

households

two-parent

more involved

1979

This

about

economic

of children

the psychological

for

That
in

the

form

was associated

support

positivity
to

the involvement

making

implications

more

related

with

families

of

one

of depression

symptoms

and

explanation

family centers on

children

of

reports

ment of adolescents

and

of instrumental

availability

maternal

found

also

poor

Chatters

because

of

move more and thus
could

help

protect

outcomes

Exhibit 21 - 4

Children

In

Single-Mother

Families

121

ARE BOYS

AT GREATER

THAN GIRLS

RISK

The increasing problems of African American boys and men have
be due to family structures
such
those we have
to
as
presumed
discussing

male

presumably
results

in

in

outcome

and

tobacco

use and
on

based

are

examining

due

outcomes

in

empirical

evidence

would

differ

father

absence

can

The gender
tied

closely

ment

in

around

to

function

achieve
origin and

makes

this

That

lies

specific

provider

role

African

their

in

take

on

adult

behavior

as

These

findings

with

mothers

of research
and

relationships

Thus

there

of same-sex

pattern

However

is

no

findings

other than

factors

outcomes

differential

for

familial

mothers
to

responsibilities

1983

American

is

for

of

is

if

of

males

risk

expected

to

families

of

United

the

the
States

American fami
and

gender-

African

Ameri-

jobs

placed

for

are

are

African

have

about

in

unskilled

chronic

joblessness

Bowman 1988

estrangement

that

expectations

their

of

men

task

alarming

adage

That

roles they

public schools

gender-based

role

is

develop

Lloyd 1985 However

or career

at

children

accomplishment

require

adult

displacement
in

male

of masculine

independent

challenging

fathers

refers

and

Lynch

function

African

problems

American

Gender-related

puberty

an occupation
against

failure and

This

such

school

families

complex problem

designated

identity

American

sons

computers

paucity

is

explain

Hill

tasks

particularly

One well-known
of

of

of

post-industrial

academic

the

families
to

generally

time

an exceptionally
is

men

can

choose
racism

gendered

that

among

Outcomes

parent-child

of African

and

States

the

successfully
sense

suggest

American

difficult

developmental

specific

only

no effects

single-mother

socialization

the

United

the

intensify

to

in

versus

that

male children

role

to

for

popularity

there

general

examined

be

American

African

date

to

African

for

In

differences

American

African

found

found

White middle-class sample

divorce

to

gender-related

that

African

among

mother-only

children

showed

involvement

parental

thus

control

parental

behavior

been

and

fathers

college education

achievement

predominantly

status

single

were

effects

locus of control

self-concept

lack of

to

same-sex

their

childs

for

saving

of

receat study examining

on

same-sex

variables

home

the

led

self-destructive

even

effects

family

father-only

35

and

males However

American

has

models

role

aggressive

the absence

that

is

major presumption

been

the

they raise

child-rearing

their

circumstances

in

which

at earlier

ages

than

girls

boys

are

and

practices

and

love

socialized

to

daughters

are

expected

Exhibit 21 - 5

AFRICAN AMERICAN SINGLE

122

with household

to assist

be

responsible

while boys

socially

as

early

expectations

that

example

mothers

to

have

have

attacks

racist

this

families

to

way out of

the

was

child-rearing

American

while

families

but

the jobless

society

rate

that

Also the
divorced
with

primary

zation

in

American

of

nit may

industrial

male children
resulted

for

involvement

growing

as

boys

compared

than

girls and

the

of

consequences
intense
ences

among

in

youths
different

chronic
the
for

in

gap

to girls

African

have

Harrison

economic and

the added

challenge

as

educational
effects

and

numbers
children

the sociali

and

males

preparation

flexibil

role

differential

weights

1988

Sannders
that

the emotional
to

despite

American
such

displace

on African American

appear

that

of

the

has

African

among

levels

of gender

still

African

be especially

similar

experi

and female

male

difficulties

quite

are

Bowman 19841990 Bowman

Bowman
of

married

female

attainment

provider

men

implications

social

increasing

expanded

although

educational

acceptance

roles

among

American

this

African

information

never

are

Thus

and

at all

success

American

joblessness

or

girls

loving sons may have been adaptive
now be less adaptive for African American

caretaker

and

and

male and

both

performance

developmental

Saunders 1988
harsher

failure

African

era

has been

provide
carry
among men and women Bowman 1988 Bowman
Bowman and his colleagues
found for example

ity

for

leaving increasing

fathers

despite increasing
and

whereas

for

adaptive

men

prone

male children

industrial

stabilized

ment of unskilled jobs has had more adverse
boys

as

women who

raising

gender

poorer educational

has

increasing

their

less

strength

high-technology

women

been

of the old adage

strategy

during the

viewed

American

have

the

sons

their

dual-earner

two-parent

physical

at earlier

White households

American

African

responsibility

regular

been

of
thus

era because

During

current

the

for

of African

rates

with children

without

in

American

African

for

have

in

in

education

may

to

self-help

skills

and

aggressive

their

employment

through

strategy

less

on

the

1991

industrial

based

get jobs

develop

these

For

in

compared

as

develop

to

even

the

in

so

shown

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traditionally

been

of daughters

Randolph

Rosser

period

domestic

be

to

thought

them

expect

making them

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may have

be expected

could

which they should

at

way

their

been

mothers

of sons

at

have

the age

for

aimed

have

to

and

study harder

rearing

differences

gender

of daughters

been

child

are allowed

American

the postslavery

During

may

infancy

do mothers

than

ages

as

African

of sons

mothers
skills

and

maintenance

MOTRERS

Beale

realities

African

socializing

boys

1985 Thus
American
in

ways

that

in

the face of

now

families

may

protect

Exhibit 21 - 6

in

Children

from

them

situations

that

and other aggressive
found

leagues
in

this

Another
is

contemporary

American

being

parental

mothers

view

sons

sons are not

yet

may become

boundaries

and

instances

overloads

women

Wilson 199O
situation

Acting

to

out

to

other

adequately

adolescent

McLoyd

the

childrens

American
though

related

may
in

about

to

have

the

sex

Moreover

noted

families

1989

1988

is

maternal

her children

distress

economic

in

the

needed

talked

to

interaction

no

to

with

higher

notion

male youths

understand

child

in

their

differences
child

parental

to fully

behavior

Al

hardship

were

working

and

African

matters predicted
there

for

the associa

tested
to

which mothers

while

Thus

in parent-child

being

psychological

implications

may be

about

Boyd-Franklin

role

financial

peers

interactions

behavior

empirically

children

the

mothers

with

usually

of problems

more research

linking

differences

the

outcomes

African

or

American

families
recent research

of family

above

and
in

address

their

feelings

Saunders

with

in

emotional

McLoyd

to

and

boys

the mother

and

child

home

experiencing

distress

clinical

processes

single-mother

families

the frequency

of the children

important

gender-based

of

predictors

sons

mother and

mothers

overwhelming

1990

Wilson

is

fathers

Moreover

task

self-destructive

Bowman

personal problems

single-mother

influence

that

psychological

intervening

ii

as

mother-only

of

levels

sex

they found

children

and

of

That

absent

age-appropriate

the parental child

roles

and

for

younger

position

for

parental
their

is

or have

mothers communication

between

tion

hostility

fulfill

normative

it

the

the

single

place

the

of boys

1974

responsibilities

to

role

reverse generational

may

outside the

or

of

of being

than

behavior

aggressive

of pent-up

the

these roles

and

emotions

in

roles

role

girls

for

relationships

Relatedly

or

adult
into

transfer

or nonviolently

their

places

Minuchin

mother may

easier

express

manifestations

unable

then

be

seek

boys

whom

with

that

may

It

violently

Therefore

the

the

by

working

single

on

behavior

assume spousal or parental
1989 Mao the demands

Boyd-Franklin
many

acting-out

1989

socialized

overwhelmed

chronic

1990

adult males

the

fulfilling

and

with such

the adolescent

particularly

as

col
later

Saunders

the

for

American

gangs
his

those discussed

as

of coping

Boyd-Franklin

child
their

surrogates

who

male

such

Bowman

explanation

of African

African

or

models

adaptive

alcohol

Bowman

behavior

resources

Howard 1985

the absence

that

to cultural

facilitates

chapter

Bowman

strain

them vulnerable to drugs

render

self-destructive

or

access

that

123

Families

Single-Mother

support

McLoyd

and

reveals
for

mixed

children

Wilson

found

findings

in

on

single-mother

that

satisfying

the

protective

families
contact

As

with

-4

Exhibit 21 - 7

members

family

Hunter and

i.e

effects

for

these

these

than

ence

with

1977

that

1990

Wilson

whom

were

African

Jacksons

1993

poverty found

that

mothers

for

and

male

American

child

however

factor

predicted

sive

symptomatology

least

favorable

willingness/preference

for

sociated with

higher

attainment

meet

the

about

how

who

response

to

perceived

demanding

the
for

children

That

paid

employment

than

those

effects
In

of

general

single-mother
for

childrens

dren

girls

of maternal

survive

is

Jackson

existing

families

contends

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one

outcomes

and

and

thrive

even

were

that

this

high

more

these

Also
their

of

school

positively

Another

finding

supports
for

picture

the

family

notion

that

the

diverse populations

picture
is

in

spent

more negative

less

on the other many African
in

in

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AMERICAN SINGLE MOTHERS

AFRICAN

124

situations

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Exhibit 21 - 8

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STRUCTURE HOUSEHOLD
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Exhibit 21 - 9

AMERICAN SINGLE MOTHERS

AFRICAN

126

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127

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AMERICAN SINGLE

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MOTHERS

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Exhibit 21 - 13

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AMERICAN SINGLE

AFRICAN

130

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Exhibit 21 - 14

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131

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DYSFUNCTIONAL SINGLE-MOTHER
TYPES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR
CHILDRENS DEVELOPMENT

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AFRICAN

132

1989

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Families

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133

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AMERICAN SINGLE

AFRICAN

134

develop-

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AMERICAN SINGLE

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136

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137

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singlehood

stress

their

sourcesingle
and

blame

into

approaches
and

by

involve

overstated and

answers

when the evidence

createdmothers
this

been

father

or

presence

have

lives

mother-blaming

well

they buffer these stressors and

chapter

research

providers

families

they respond

in this

some

examining

factors

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service

fare

responsive

to the

some

of adversity

research

communities

of motherhood

straight

put

face

family

these

self-help and

realities

are

one

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even

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the

Qualitative

to

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families
in

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American

African

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in

and

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outcomes

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for their

planners

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in

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life

resilience

how

risk or

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data

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into

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understanding
at

better

ment

Even

increase

to

African

suggests

eco

doubt

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from poverty

relief

developmental

for

of

make

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quality

resources

others

families survive

can

males

better

need

families and

develop

families

The

level

Americans
see

women

American

poverty

are

structure

improved

that

the

will

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of

problems

risk

greater

than

recently

1994

Pleck

way

social

opportunity

familial

resilience

families

their

attention

African

for

African

for

MOTHERS

economic hardship on child

below

or

single-mother

an

to

and

at

particularly

barriers

individual

and

even

at

sexism

realities

Mounting

Less

of

the absence

and

families

children

numbers of children

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of

political

future

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the impact

of racism

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the near

and

c6nsequence

social

that

ful

As

children

many

per se has received

relations

whammy

double

in

AMERICAN SINGLE

AFRICAN

138

development
less

than going

reasons noted

have

children

Exhibit 21 - 22

of

Children

in

different

Single-Mother

and have

data

dispel
ability

our

limit

to

of

needs

and

family

tional

role

and

of

is

of

study
if

we

to

child

household

status

of

the

single-mother

childrens

outcomes

and

characteristics

singlehood

direct

which

function

characteristics
and

that

or

interrela

the

whether

predict

indirect

effect

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child-rearing

of

availability

structure

has
and

of maternal

for

reason

age

char

personal

socioemotional

Models are needed

structure

family

developmental

environment

opportunity

risk

socioemo

processes

environment

singlethe

e.g

child

support support network

variables

these

and

caregiving

and

composition

the

strain perceptions

relationship

and emotional

among

tionships

life

in

single-mother

relationship

parent-child

perceived

in

of

characteristics

birth cognitive

characteristics

instrumental

needed

develop

understand

fully

of parent-child

childs

and the

outcomes

child

are

with being

individual

perception of
mother

the

perceptions

ing

ing

the

associated

factors

status

at first

age

needed

we must examine

acteristics

cur

that

provide

needs

their

birth

strategy

families

and

status perception of family status cognitive

health

the

is

protective

to

That

approach

families

needs

meet

to

approach

research

this

single-mother

their

suburban

childs

children

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to

rural

at first

age
of

purposes

myths about

respond

more responsive

for

mental

the

to

urban

age

factors

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etc.

adults come from varied

adolescence

types of communities

varied other demographic

be

rently

and

locations

family history
would

preschool

infancy

ages

gcographic

139

Families

on

caregiv

function

practices

as

mediating variables
Inherent

in

this

transactional

approach

that

uses

risk

wocesses

and

socialization

mother

African
and

of

members

family

mother

empirical

families

Pleck

1985

Sorely needed

in

variables

developmentally
Finally

pounded

needed

to fully

are

intervening

families Previous

1994

et

are

studies

that

physical and

appropriate
theory
explicate
linked

examine

the

diversity

work

family

in single-

in this

area provides
adjustments

American

African

McLoyd

Spencer

mental

the

the varied

health

that

single-

Wilson

Brookins

include an expanded

range
are

1990
Allen

of

child

investigated

ways

ethnography
factors
to

in

difference

individual
to

viewing

al 1994
1988

Slaughter

e.g

processes

for

children

Chase-Lansdale

an

is

model

underlying

arguments

especially

Nettles

outcome

resilience

practices

American

theoretical

approach

and

that

and

other

may provide

developmental

approaches

qualitative
better

outcomes

insight
for

into

children

the
in

_-

Exhibit 21 - 23

these families This

Since

is especially

American

of African

theoretical

male

Black

performance

among

Black

and

develop

as

to

attempt

Regarding

parenting

assist

could

with

young children

very

assistance

lems

with

their

also

sample

or

there

kind

account

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role

need

Is

for

in

of research
of

an

to provide
not

may

general

an
as

process

of

children

for

solutions

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mothers
or

this

mothers

should

When

families

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be
have

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grams should

be

family

with

the

possible

for

example

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found

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mothers

to

well-being

and

Single
flexibility

to

mothers

levels

need

on

capitalize

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to

lower

be

children

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supports
closing
have

critical

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to

in

occurring
ensure

to

kin

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of

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of kin
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of

of self-esteem and
to

and

to

to

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support

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that

care support

suggested

pro
not

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group

and

detriment

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support

mastery

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and

continue

chance

and

the help

by

related

support

receipt

apiritunlity

in

could

worries

understand

networks

life satisfaction

mothers

1990

group

and

decisions

all

enhancements
the

and

and prob

Wilson

support

or supplanted

involved

assistance

best

and

problems

naturally

that

and

These

job search

coping

in Single mothers

the

their

mothers

communication

the

is

undermined

focused

African

related

for

network

support

should

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roles

support

for

of sharing worries

by McLoyd

discuss

to

these

management

in

parent-child

noted

strategies

of the mother

network

as

varied

care

child

children

effect

Americans

African

outlet

with

Schmiege

their

household

or

their

reframing

roles

provide

adolescent

deleterious

in

Richards

adultlike

for

from family

off

mothers

performing

to

services

their

cut

strengths

care

respite

or community-level

groups

assist

assume

to

mothers

assist

younger

generate

and

can

family

trade

the possible

to

an

provide

include

mothers

could

them

their
also

for

alert

that

failed

children

successfully

children

networks

appear

has

on behalf

1989

Myers

this

support

groups

in

taxing

of

in

to pursue

and

identifying

mothers

without

wan

by

may

descriptive

mothers

Support

and

situation

1994 To

their

Blacks

implications
for

needed

networks

friendship

1989

or

scientists

complete

practical

are

supports

role

socialization

intervene

to

are

MOTHERS

177

possible

groups

we

literature in the past

women

behavioral

social

if

As suggested

role

gender

early

crucial

youths

or empirical

how

of

account

to

AMERICAN SINGLE

AFRICAN

140

the complexities

inner strengths

take

way out when

see

of

role

advantage
the walls

our

best

resource

Foster care

and

other out-of-home

are

to

ensure

Exhibit 21 - 24

Children

in

Families

Single-Mother

placements

should

children

presumed to be more viable

dysfunctional

in

and

theasiag
also

not be

mother
economic

to

the

Governmental

needs

families Relief
will

support

of

of

the

high school

beyond

job

ment child care assistance
and family-centered
housing
That

problems

maternal

for

quence

education

GEl
lege

general

with those
those

just

Thus

of the

the

the

larger

has

to

boys

preschool

especially

that

could

education

mentor

also

be viewed

by children

experienced

each

providing

at

other
for

support

as

preventive

ages particu

later

1993
context

considered
for

the

to

American

ensure

these

of

numbers

families increase

which

in

we move

as

African

resources
as

health

conse

favorable

programs

program could

cultural

be

outcomes

Undoubtedly
mother

problems

Jackson

we mobilize

of college

Such

place

provisions

of mental

has

Single mothers

start

experience

beginning

boys

existing

with

to

approach
larly

would be

mothers

for

go beyond
training Financial support for col

diploma

equivalency

education

treatment

intervention

developing

instrumental

to

structure

school

perceptions of children

for

provides support

accommo

single-mother

search assistance job

for

programs

beyond high

in

assistance

to

subsidies or noncash

financial

of

history

for

access

opportunity

single-

flexibility

American
and

strain

financial

widening

long

role

family supports

African

in

the

experienced

must be reformulated

children

maternal

require

education

including

and programs

Moreover

women

not have

will

support

or newly

managing

for

are

problems

Therefore

divorced

may

role

or use of extended

policies

the varied

mother

alternatives

these

of these children

with increased

coping

result they

single

household

binuclear

in

As

hardship

adjustment

date

result

may

status

mothers

women e.g

American

some African

for

already overloaded

is

the nonbiological

for

families

single-mother

the system

be needed

141

we

better

children

in

childrens

these

families

families

optimal

children
whole

still

and

as

development

takes

fmd It

are

understanding

American

African

will

single-mother

toward

in

singleto

village

child

raise

NOTE
Mothers
mothers
major

who

in

serve

responsibility

this

as

context

head

for

refers

of households

parenting

an

to

and

biological

or

African

live

ia

American

formal

family

or informal

situations

where

adoptive
they

have

child

______---

fl-

Exhibit 21 - 25

AMERICAN SINGLE

AFRICAN

142

MOTHERS

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Exhibit 21 - 26

in

Children

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Hayghe
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child

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Black

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single working

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children

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26-34

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Waldmaa

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Child

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social

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children

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Unemployment
Effects

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562-589

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and

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Develop

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49-69

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Families

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Minuchin

adolescents

psycholojn

Blackfamilles
Nonual

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interruption

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single-

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Competent

Adolescent

Jayaratns

and

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low-inca

Black

American

patterns

the mental

CA

Past

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In

support

and

1012-1022

34

Relations

McLoyd
work

poor

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Booth

rary families

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Normal family

Mc

suuctum

Painily

families

Social

dysfunctional

1983

contexts

Ed. 1981

Mcooldrick

and

hi

Martin

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Adolescence

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Psychiatry

SIngle-parent

families receive

5542-58

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nomic

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families

sychlatry

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Turner

l.A 1993

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maintain

30-34

106

of General

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Its

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Affective

The

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women

Black

or

173-178

In

children

multiple

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Scholar

adoles

Press

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RIsk
in

and

mechanisms

bridge

socialization

of Block

in

Black

families

Black

Cain-

10-17

Exhibit 21 - 27

AMERICAN SINGLE MOTHERS

AFRICAN

144

Nobles

I.

Goddard
Issues

families
Pearson

ing involvement

Woodlawn

in the

lalongo

and

behavior

Unpublished

1994

Ed

Infant

families

attachment

grand

and

structure

patent

61 434-442

Development

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Institute

Black

Family

structure

school

elementary

children

correspondence

Black

McAdoo

In

perspective

of

AfrIcan-American

Family

family

Kellam
population

in

Parenting

Child

Community

Black

S.D 1990

in

Diversity

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In

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Cavil

1.

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Black

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familIes

children

young

pp

211-224

historical

Beverly

CA

Hills

Sage

1989

Randolph
In

Ed

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pp

Psychology

133-165

families
Rosser

1991

context

pp

of Infancy

New

Directions

Spencer

development

affective

1974

Stack

kin

All our

Boulin

Staples

Stevens

for

1993

Francisco

1988

Jr

low-income

groeps

of

Eds

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The

cultural

developmental
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The social
Eds. 1985 Beginnings
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NJ Lawrence
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survival in
Black
New York
cornmunlty

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SocIal

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Chatters

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Black

crossroads

the

Challenges

Jossey-Bass

Black

of

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Black

teenagers

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parenting
and

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In

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59635-642

Development

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Taylor

The Howard

children

Strategies

Johnson
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Child

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single-parent

42 277-285

Row

Harper

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No 42

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antipoverty

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Brazelton

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Black

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Lester

133-165

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Growing

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1984

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Cliffs

NJ

Prentice

Hall

Exhibit 21 - 28

in

Woinble

Brisbane

7yatment Quanerl

Demo

19854986
23-4 1-16

1991

Acock

Ed

Coniemporaryfamilies
National

neapolis

Downey
Hunt

Social

of

the

girl

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African

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in

on

Alcoholism

children

In

pp

162-191

back

single-parent

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of Marriage
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and

orientation

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the

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55

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1993

1984
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children
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the

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children

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25 90-102

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children

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in

1977

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forward

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1975

of divorce

impact

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Problems 23 35-52

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145

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poverty

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261-276

disruption
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sod

90-115

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Jossey

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Exhibit 21 - 29